Nelson Glueck

Nelson Glueck was born on June 4, 1900 in Cincinnati, Ohio. During the 70 years of his life he was a well-known Rabbi and archaeologist until his death on February 12, 1971. At the age of 23, he was ordained as a Reform rabbi by the Hebrew Union College and four years later was awarded his Ph.D. at Jena, Germany, for his dissertation on the biblical concept of hesed (the Hebrew term for goodness or divine kindness). Until World War II Gluek worked with William Foxwell Albright at the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem (ASOR,) and Albright's excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim. Glueck himself served as director of ASOR, as well as having a faculty position at HUC in Jerusalem. After graduating from Cincinnati Public Schools, he atteneded the University of Cincinnati where he received his bachelor's degree. Glueck went home in 1931 and married Helen Ransohof Iglauer, a medical student at the University of Cincinnati who was a professor of medicine. Their only son Dr. Charles Jonathan Glueck was a noted physician as well. Glueck continued his studies in Germany for four years and received his doctorate degree from the University of Jena in 1926. For the next two years (1927-28) he would continue his studies at the School in Jerusalem. While studying in Palestine he became interested in archaeology, returning twice (1930 and 1932) to take part in an excavation of Tell Beit Mirsim, probably Biblical Debir (Kirjath-Sepher). â€Å"During World War II Glueck served in the Office of Strategic Services (the precursor of the CIA), examining possible escape routes for the allies through the desert, in anticipation of the German army under General Rommel, reaching Palestine. Fortunately, Rommel's advance was halted by the Allies in Egypt.† He created the HUC Biblical and Archaeological School in Jerusalem in 1963, the same year that he appeared on the cover of Time magazine. The institute was renamed in 1972 to the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology. Glueck after the war became president of the Hebrew Union College, and then president of the combined HUC-Jewish Institute of Religion, a position he held until his death in 1971. This is the same colledge that ordained him as a Rabbi. As president Glueck oversaw the merger of HUC with the Jewish Institute of Religion, expanding the institution based out of Cincinnati to now include schools in New York, Los Angeles, and Jerusalem. He played a vital role in the creation of the Schools of Jewish Communal Service and was the founder of the School of Biblical and Archaeological Studies in Jerusalem, in honor of him they now bears his name.Excavation Sites and Methods of ExcavationThe Bible was his map for excavations and, in turn, the excavations shed a bit of light on the Bible. Sheldon H. Blank and H. Ginsberg note, â€Å"A scientist he was, yet a fragment of a wall or a potsherd could evoke an emotional as well as an intellectual response. He had a love affair with the Land (the â€Å"heartland†), he uncovered not the history but the drama of people.† â€Å"This makes sense seeing Glueck's service as a rabbi and studies of the Old Testament. Glueck excavated several sites in 1950 he excavated the remains of the civilization of the Nabataeans in Transjordan, this was a copper-mining industry that was located at the shore of the Red Sea. This showed how the Negev could support a such a large population due to the use of irrigation techniques using the Red Sea. Therefore what Glueck says about Negev is, â€Å"The length and width of the Negev were interconnected with roads marked by fortresses, villages, way stations and watertight cisterns.† The erecting of fortresses over the Negev served as an excellent source of protection and saw villages flourish, and agriculture grows, and watertight cisterns surrounded the Negev which made possible the emergence of villages and flocks in areas where they would otherwise not be present. Glueck also spent a lot of time working to define a history for the Negev and wrote: â€Å"The Archaeological History of the Negev† based on his findings. Glueck notes that there were a series of civilizations there and that the Negev is positioned between Canaan, Arabia, and Egypt which made it a strategic location. He indicates that the different civilizations experienced no significant changes in the climate and that no climatic changes have occurred within the last ten thousand years at least. Chalcolithic pottery has been located in the Negev which indicates that a civilization existed there during that period. After this civilization disappeared, the land was unused for almost a thousand years until the Middle Bronze I period (between 21st and 19th centuries BC). â€Å"This civilization was agricultural as evidenced by â€Å"beehive† stone houses that are located on slopes of hills located above land useable for farming.† â€Å"Cup holes† carved in limestone were found that indicate they were used for grinding grain and this evidence has been placed in MB I by the stories of Abraham in the Old Testament.Glueck ExcavationsArchaeology discovered by Glueck indicates a range of civilizations such as the Nabateans who left a substantial amount of pottery behind. Nabateans were known for their worship of multiple deities and are traditionally identified as being pagan which makes the discovery of Khierbet Et-Tannur (a temple) significant. Glueck notes that while the entire site had not been excavated at the time of his writing, â€Å"A whole pantheon of hitherto unknown Nabataean deities was found in the temple that had become their grave.† This temple sits on top of a hill with evidence of staircases leading up steep areas and leading Glueck to believe that goddesses were honored at the peak of this hill and those like it. In 1938 Glueck also did an excavation on the northern third, during the excavation of the site he found a location of forty-five rooms. â€Å"The mound's most impressive structure was uncovered in the northwest corner of the excavated area, a building complex consisting of three roughly square units at the northern end and three larger rectangular rooms extending to the south. † The latter are 7.40 m in length and of varying widths (2.00-3.00 m). The building measures 13.20 m in length (north-south) and is 12.30 m wide on the north side and 13.20 m wide on the south side. The exterior walls are 1.20 m wide; interior walls vary between 0.95 and 1.05 m. The walls were preserved to a height of 2.70 m. The building is almost entirely of mudbrick construction. Its bricks measure ca. 0.40 x 0.20 x 0.10 m and were laid in a roughly â€Å"header and stretcher† fashion. They found 2 horizontal rows of wooden beams that could be consider as construction to strengthening the walls. they had semicircular holes which proved this was a result of the fire and it also confirm the construction and used of wooden beams as written in I Kings. This way of construction with support beams is referenced in I Kings 6:36 which reads, â€Å"He (Solomon) built the inner court with three courses of hewn stone and one course of cedar beams.† Wooden beams, halved in the case of Tell el-Kheleifeh, were embedded across the widths of the walls, creating a stronger bond. The semicircular holes were all that remained after the timbers were consumed in a destruction by fire. These features were also discovered elsewhere in the site's architecture, notably in Room 49. Eight installations, interpreted as hearths or ovens, were found in this casemate unit. Slag was also found at this site which Glueck believes indicates that Tell el-Kheleifeh was used to remelt globules of copper ore retrieved through metallurgical processes in the Wadi Arabah smelting sites to shape them into easily salable ingots or pour the molten metal into molds. â€Å"Ezion-Geber was also a marketplace from Arabia to Palestine. Support for this fact came when pottery was found that had horn handles and mat bases which is associated with the Calebites, Kenites, Rechabites, Yerahmeelites, dated to Iron Age I-II. † Furthermore, the building was identified as a stone house granary and had the means of smelting and fire damage present further supporting the results of the fire. Glueck notes, â€Å"The strong winds which constantly blow from the north in the Arabah furnished the draft necessary for the proper functioning of the furnaces.† A fortified outer wall protected the building, and while Ezion-Geber I was probably destroyed by Shishak, it was rebuilt with a gateway reminiscent of Jehosophat of Judah (871-849 BC). Glueck also led important excavations in Ezion-Geber where it is believed that Solomon's naval base was located. Excavations began in March 1998, and it took three months to uncover one-third of the site. Pottery was discovered at this site along with other findings but its important to note is that the pottery varied. A piece of Edomite pottery was discovered carrying the name â€Å"QoS† which could reference a kind of a god. This indicates that this area had been occupied over a long period of time. An article published in The Biblical Archaeologist in 1965 entitled â€Å"Ezion-Geber† finds Glueck arguing that Tell el- Kheleifeh is Ezion-Geber. In this article he indicates that Tell el-Kheleifeh is represented by a low small mound that â€Å"is located approximately in the center of the north shore of the Gulf of Aqabah, midway between Jordanian Aqabah at its east end and Israeli Eilat at its west end.† Today, it sits five hundred yards from the shore and is estimated to have been at least three hundred yards away many millennia ago during its first occupation in 10th century BC. The location appear to be consistent with the Bibles description in I Kings 9:26 of â€Å"beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea, in the land of Edom.† Glueck further state that, â€Å"The conviction that there has been comparatively little change in the northern shoreline derives partly from our discovery of a copper smelting site on a low shoreline foothill at Mrashrash, now incorporated into Eilat, immediately overlooking the northwest end of the Gulf of Aqabah.† And that the explorations in Eastern Palestine began to appear in 1933, opening new views on the movement of peoples in the Transjordan area in antiquity. Landmarks in his archaeological odyssey were King Solomon's port city Ezion-Geber and his copper mines; the unexpectedly numerous settlements in the Negev; Khirbet Tannur and the civilization of the Nabataeans; the systematic excavation of Tell Gezer. Glueck excavated area at the end of the 1940 season was ca. 80 m north-south, by 72 m east-west. The corner of a nearby garden wall was chosen for the site benchmark, established at 3.99 m over the shore of the Gulf of Aqaba. The highest point of the tell was southeast of its center (Square N:17) at +2.84 m, corresponding to the absolute height above sea level of +6.83 m. The deepest excavated level, reportedly to virgin soil, was in Room 113 ( 1.53 m) below benchmark level. The difference in height between the deepest wall foundation of the western casemate perimeter and the top of the preserved walls was 4.37 m. Although, Tell el-Kheleifeh is not considered a conspicuous site today. Its appearance is very familiar to that of the many surrounding hillocks. A surface survey in August 1980 revealed that, the area of extant architecture is little more than 12 square meters and a few mudbrick walls have been preserved to a height of 1.5 m. â€Å"The fragmentary remains could not be located on the plans prepared by Glueck's architect J. Pinkerfeld. It is likely that the existing walls represent an architectural assortment from the various periods of occupation. † They appear to be located south-southeast of the site's largest structure. The excavator's northern, eastern, and western dumps provided the reference points for location. Although there are no visible remains of the most distinctive architectural elements, a wall in the northern section of preserved architecture, with two horizontal rows of apertures, were interpreted initially as flues. Glueck's excavation area is where the mound has been disturbed at several points by modern military installations, most notably an observation tower toward the southern end of Its foundations appear to have cut undisturbed levels to a depth of 1.5 m. Several trenches have also been cut into the northern and western sections of the site, and these disturbances produced an abundance of finds, including a stamped Rhodian jar handle and a bronze trefoil arrowhead. The material remains gleaned from this survey provide a valuable complement to the 1938-40 assemblage.DiscoveriesBiblical scholars have debated for years whether or not the Edomites ever had a true kingdom, or was a mining industry. In the 1930s, Nelson Glueck made a claim to have found King Solomon's mines, citing, among other things, evidence of mining trails, as well as slag mounds. However, Glueck's claim was largely dismissed after British excavations in the 1970s and 80s seemed to show that extensive mining didn't come to the area until hundreds of years after Solomon's rule. A consensus emerged that the Bible was heavily edited in the 5th century BCE, long after the events, while British excavations of the Ed omite highlands in the 1970s-80s suggested the Iron Age had not even come to Edom until the 7th century BCE. Levy, Director of the Levantine Archaeology Lab at UCSD and associate director of the new Center of Interdisciplinary Science for Art, Architecture, and Archaeology (CISA3), inferred that data from the first large-scale stratified and systematic excavation of a site in the southern Levant ,gave evidence that complex societies were indeed active in 10th and 9th centuries BCE. Which brings us back to the debate about the historicity of the Hebrew Bible narratives related to this period. Glueck discoveries in Faynan/Edom got laughed at, but this recent discovery has vindicated him. Biblical Impact Glueck believed that the Hebrew Bible contains historical memory, but one that cannot be proven. He felt that the spirit of the Israelites was still alive in modern Israel, instilling that belief in both his students and his colleagues. Today, our research paradigms may differ from those of Glueck's day, but his enthusiasm and scholarly integrity remain with us always. The range of Glueck's excavations speaks volume and will echo through the sands of time. He have certainly paved the way for Biblical archaeology to memmic and gave believers more resources to study outside of the Bible. Archaeology cannot be used to prove a Biblical account, however, it definitely can be used to assert the existence of a certain nation at the same time in history. Through Glueck work and the excavations performed by him, believers now have the abilty to research further and take a deep dive into a rich history.ConclusionGlueck work not only laid a strong foundation but it also paved the way in a since to how archaeology is an understatement, providing believers with a broader knowledge and understanding. Through human beings like Nelson Glueck, archaeology has emerged and will continue to grow in a positive way. The works of Glueck continue to ring true and set a precedent for research that every area on the face of the earth, be it outwardly ever so waste and empty, has a story behind it which the inquisitive sooner or later will attempt to obtain. Wel l put statement by Glueck himself in the relationship of the Bible to archaeology. He writes:â€Å"As a matter of fact, however, it may be stated categorically that no archaeological discovery has ever controverted a biblical reference. Scores of archaeological findings have been made which confirm to clear outline or in exact detail historical statements in the Bible.And by the same token, proper eval- uations of the biblical descriptions has often led to amazing discoveries. They form tesserae in the vast mosaic of the Bible's almost incredible correct historical memory.†Glueck put his conviction into practice when he sought to locate King Solomons's long-lost port city of Ezion-Geber. The memory of its location had been in Glueck words â€Å"snuffed out.† like the flame of a gutted candle.† Glueck began by consulting 1 Kings of the Bible that documented this site. The biblical statement said it was located beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea in the land of Edom (1 Kings 9:26;10:22). The Bible served him as a guidebook in his explorations, and his explorations shed light on the Bible. An example we can all learn from. Not that he believed archaeology could or even should lend support to the supreme spiritual values and ethical norms which are native to the Bible. These have their own manifest value. Glueck patience and persistence in his work makes his discoveries and works worth remembering. His dedication and the contribution he has made to the field of archaeology is a valued resource for believer and future archaeologist. The Bible is the inspired and accurate Word of God and God often confirm His Word through mankind. Therefore, we should compare the Scriptural records against the archeological discoveries uncovered at these sites where many of these thrilling events of the Bible actually occurred. The results of these detailed investigations are available for all to examine.BibliographyThe Nelson Glueck School of Archaeology, â€Å"Our founder: Nelson Glueck (1900-1971)†, The Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology (2010), (accessed October 8, 2018).Albright, William F. â€Å"Nelson Glueck in Memoriam.† Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 202 (1971): 2-1. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1356266. (ac cessed October 8, 2018).Glueck, Nelson. 1961. â€Å"The archaeological history of the Negev.† Hebrew Union College Annual 32, 11-18. ATLASerials, Religion Collection, EBSCOhost (accessed October 8, 2018)Ezion-Geber Nelson Glueck Excavations at Tell el-Kheleifeh 1965 AD, http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-exodus-kadesh-barnea-ezion-geber- nelson-gluecks-tell-el-kheleifeh-1965ad.htm (accessed October 8, 2018).Solomon's Fortress at Elat, Aqaba: Tell El-kheleifeh and Jezirit, http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-exodus-route-ezion-geber-elat-aq (accessed October 8, 2018).Pratico, Gary D. â€Å"Nelson Glueck's 1938-1940 Excavations at Tell El-Kheleifeh: A Reappraisal.† Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 259 (1985): 1-32. doi:10.2307/1356795. (accessed October 8, 2018).Nelson Glueck's 1938-1940 Excavations At Tell El-kheleifeh .., http://www.bible.ca/archeology/bible-archeology-exodus-kadesh-barnea-ezion-geber- Nelson-gluecks-1 938-1940-excavations-tell-el-kheleifeh-reappraisal-gary-pratico (accessed October 8, 2018).Uncovering The Secrets Of Kahn, Da Vinci And Solomon's .., http://www.voiceofsandiego.org/topics/science-environment/uncovering-the-secrets (accessed October 8, 2018).King Solomon's (copper) Mines? – University Of California .., http://ucsdnews.ucsd.edu/archive/newsrel/soc/10-22KingSolomon.asp (accessed October 8, 2018).Nelson Glueck, Rivers in the Desert. Farrar, Straus and Cudahy, New York, Grove Press, 1960, p. 31Price, J. Randall. The Stones Cry Out: What Archaeology Reveals About the Truth of the Bible. Eugene, Oreg.: Harvest House, 1997.

Nike Ppt

â€Å"Greeks say when we go to battle and win,we say it is NIKE† INTRODUCTION TO NIKE †¢ Est. in 1960 in Oregon †¢ Phil knight and Bowerman- founder †¢ Started small and now has covered U. S and international markets †¢ Nike is now one of the biggest mfd. Of the world BACKGROUND †¢ Most of the factories are located in Asia including Indonesia,China,Taiwan,India Thailand,Veitnam,Pakistan ,Philippines and Malaysia †¢ Nike outsourcing contracts around 500 factories in 45 countries. Nike currently controls more than 45% of the US sportswear market.Background cont. †¢ The company initially operated as a distributor for Japanese shoe maker Onitsuka Tiger, making most sales at track meets out of Knight's automobile. †¢ The company's profits grew quickly, and in 1966, BRS opened its first retail store, located on Pico Boulevard in Santa Monica, California. By 1971, the relationship between BRS and Onitsuka Tiger was nearing an end. ANALYSIS OF C ASE STUDY †¢ Child labour †¢ Not satisfying customer needs †¢ Ignorance of mkt. trends AccusationsIn 1996-1997, Nike was accused of labor violations and human rights abuses in foreign countries (mainly Asian). Contrary Evidences †¢ Thousands of mostly young, female workers in Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Vietnam, China) were being exposed to reproductive toxins and suspected carcinogens. †¢ Some workers were not earning a â€Å"living wage† even though they work oftentimes 12 to 14 hours per day. †¢ Nike workers in Southeast Asia have suffered corporal punishment and corporal abuse. †¢ Nike young female workers have suffered sexual harassment. Nike workers in Southeast Asia have been forced to work overtime in violation of applicable laws. Core issue of Nike NIKE PRATICES CHILD LABOUR †¢ Children are not only the easiest to intimidate, they're also the cheapest workers. Twelve-year-old Tariq, one of thousands employed in Pakistan's soccer ball industry, which produces five million balls a year for the U. S. market, stitches leather pieces in Mahotra. He earns 60 cents a ball, and it takes most of a day to make one (Schanberg, 1996: 38).Silgi is only three. Her hands are so tiny she can't handle a scissors. But she started stitching soccer balls recently to help her mother and four sisters. Together they earn 75 cents a day working in their shanty home in Jullundur, India (Sidebar to Life Magazine Story, p 41 NOTE: There is a photo (Source) of a young girl dressed in town and soiled clothing next to the soccer ball clutching a needle and thread. The needle is longer than her fingers. †¢ CONSEQUENCES Nike executives have been targets at public place †¢ Students have pressed administrators and athletic directors to ban products that have been made under â€Å"sweatshop† conditions †¢ In 2002 an individual sued Nike, alleging that the company knowingly made false and misleading statements in its de nial of direct participation in abusive labor conditions abroad. REMEDIES †¢ Nike defended, through corporate news releases, full-page ads in major newspapers, and letters to editors †¢ Nike gave $1. million to the Washington D. C. based Fair Labor Association (FLA) †¢ In 2003, company employed 86 compliance officer †¢ But stigma of past practices remains emblazoned on its image and brand name. Nike’s Responses †¢ Nike responded with†¦ – Press releases – Letters to the newspaper – Personal letters to university presidents and athletic directors – Campus Visits – Independent audit of factories – Speak at conferences COMPILED BY AKRITI JHA DEEPTI SINGH TRIPTI SINGH

Book Review †English as an International Language Essay

The blurb of this contribution to the scientific research of English states that this language does not only matter in the context of linguistics but also in other subcategories of science like â€Å"sociocultural, political and pedagogical† fields. The reason is seen in the matter of English being a lingua franca that is used in all areas of these studies and therefore the book’s goal is to take a closer look into the complexity of the international usage of English. The book is kept in a light tone of brown on the outside. On the cover there is a picture of a globe published in Digital Shock in 1997, obviously underlining the focus on inter-nationality. Title and Editor are kept in white. The book spine gives a short introduction about the focus and provides the reader with some quotes of well-known scholars like Janina Brutt-Griffler and Ryuko Kubota. At the beginning of the book, the lists of acknowledgments, contributors and abbreviations are located, followed by an overview by the editor Farzard Sharifian. The work is split into four parts namely: 1. Native/ Non native Divide: Politics, Policies and Practices; 2. EIL, Attitudes and Identity(ies); 3. EIL, Teacher Education and Language Testing: Gaps and Challenges; 4. The Scope of EIL: Widening, Tightening and Emerging Themes. All of the parts contain 3 essays, except the fourth chapter that provides five different endings. In order to give a brought overview, I will summarize each essay in short and name the convincing and the missing points. The introduction states that the focus of this book is â€Å"on communication rather than on the speakers’ nationality† (p. 5). The reason for this focus lies within the critique that English language teachers express while looking at the results of such a research. This reveals a unilateral measure, excluding the scientific field of English language teaching and underlining the focus on more political issues. However, it already gives a certain sense to the difference between English as an international language (EIL) and English as it is taught in school. This overview deepens on the following pages dealing with the difference of â€Å"politics, policies and practices† (p. 6) and the more precise definition of EIL. By looking closer on attitudes and identities, the author takes position in recent debates and controversies e. g. based on the â€Å"NS-NNS accent†. Even though he declares an assumption stating that â€Å"English native speakers have no difficulty understanding each other† (p. 8) to be wrong, he at the same time provides the readers with the pro and contra arguments in such a debate. Due to the fact of his entry being more or less an introduction, Sharifian succeeds in not going to far into detail but giving hints of what will be dealt with in the following. The starting chapter is mainly concerned with the politics influencing English as an international language. The first essay is contributed by Adrian Holliday, professor for linguistics at the Canterbury Christ Church University in the UK. He argues that English as a lingua franca cannot be dealt with on sociolinguistic grounds alone but must be seen as phenomenon of changing ownership. With this statement he does not question the lingua franca movement but rather points out possible problems resolving from this point of view (p. 21). After providing the reader with background knowledge of the movement establishes a distinction of native and non-native speakers based on the question whether or not this is a distinction to be made on linguistic or political foundation. In the end he comes to the conclusion that due to their distance to the language, non-native speakers are more critical about English as a lingua franca. With the combination of political and linguistic approaches, Holliday provides the reader with a real sense connection of the two fields and therefore this entry is an appropriate contribution to the subject of the book. The next essay is written by Sadia Ali, anthropological linguist from Zayet University. Her focus lies within the field of EIL in the Gulf Corporation Council (GCC) (p. 34). In order to do so she reflects upon the experience of English teachers within this council. This is a major contrast o the focus that Sharifian declared in the beginning of the work. However, by finding out that the employed people in this field are usually native speakers, Ali continues by analyzing their experiences within the alien culture (pp. 40-42). Through the research on the students perceptions, she also enlightens the flip side of the issue and comes to the conclusion that even though the qualification of a teacher does not depend on his/her being a native speaker, hiring processes are still unfair and not adjusted to the actual needs. Additionally, she proposes to give up older convictions of regarding correct English as an attribute of native speaker (pp. 51-52). Marko Modiano from the University of Stockholm takes the same line with the slight adjustment of rather concentrating on European language teaching which in his opinion failed. By providing the reader with tables that reveal the multilingualism in Europe and its state, he claims that the policy of staying with this system causes the failure of English language teaching (pp. 70-76). Even though the arguments seem convincing, Modiano totally neglects the opposite view of English being just used in order to simplify international economical or cultural processes. The second part of the book deals with the characteristics of EIL in particular. The first contribution by David Li, Associate Professor at the University of Hong Kong, aims to research the views of non- native speakers towards intelligibility and identity. In short the discussion whether native speaker based pedagogical models are useful or if pluricentricity should be the norm. Based on a combination of quantitative and qualitative data using a semi-structured questionnaire he comes to the conclusion that teachers should raise the awareness of their students for other varieties of English rather than sticking to a native-speaker based model in order to â€Å"encourage the learners’ confidences in their own English varieties† (p. 110). The sixth chapter is published by Enric Llurda is a Professor Applied Linguistics at the University of Lleida, Spain. His scrutiny is located within the fields of native models among second language users and teachers and their pervasiveness. He establishes a connection between non-native English speakers and the phenomenon of the Stockholm Syndrom (p. 119). He claims that non-native speaking English teachers are accepting proposals and formulation â€Å"that relegate to mere spectators and at times executioners of native speaker norms† (p. 119). After establishing a connection between these teacher and EIL, he further describes the attitudes between the two and comes to the conclusion that there is a â€Å"need to overcome non-native English speaking teachers and their subordination to native speakers models† (p. 28). Additionally, he provides possible solutions e. g. to gibe teachers more opportunities to develop their language skills. (pp. 130-131). EIL migrant teacher identities is the field of investigation of Bojana Petric, a lecturer at the Department of Language and Linguistics at the University of Essex. Taking into consideration the mobility of English language educators, she wants to give an overv iew into the role of a migrant teacher within his/hers classroom. Her results are based on interviews with four English teachers in Hungary. These interviews brought her to the conclusion that various factors have an influence on the teachers’ constructions of identities. However by admitting that e. g. gender, race or class have also impact to a certain extend she reveals that the research on this field is just one out of many to tackle the issue of migrant teachers (pp. 148-149). The third part of the entire book already gives an impression of more future oriented essays, aiming to improve backward conditions. The first essay subscribe to that and is written by Vaidehi Ramanathan, a Professor for Socio/Applied linguistics at the university of California, and Brian Morgan from the the York University in Toronto. From a more critical point of view the two argue that globalization makes the problem of classes and their inequality more complex than before and has therefore also an influence on teaching English to speakers of other Languages (TESOL). The interesting thing about this article is the structure of it. Both authors engage in some kind of dialogue and thus the arguments add up and reflect upon each other. Be that as it may they come to the conclusion that that globalization results in significant challenges for â€Å"new scholars and practitioners in TESOL† (p. 166-167) which at the same time help lead to new possibilites in ways of approach. While all preceding chapters deal with whole parts of the globe e. g. the Eastern bloc, chapter 9 focuses on preparation programs in Japan for English teachers. Aya Matsuda, Assistant Professor at Arizona State University, takes a stand in the debate about the Japanese action plan â€Å"to ‘cultivate Japanese with English abilities. (p. 169) and in how far World English and EIL are incorporated into such a program. In order to do so, she used a questionnaire for Universities having an accredited teacher preparation program to collect the information needed. After the evaluation she draws to a close that the current preparation programs are â€Å"attempting to increase their students’ awareness of the sociolinguistic complexi ty† (p. 87). However, it will take more time to further improve these programs and to make them a good instrument to change the teaching methods and hence our society. The test that almost every student of English has encountered during his studies is the TOEFL. For this reason, Sarah Zafar Khan, director of the Effat English Academy at Effat College in Saudi Arabia, puts tests like this in comparison to the notion of English as an international language. She basically questions the dominance of standard American variety of English and the parts of the TOEFL test. In short is there a hegemony or not. To provide a practical example she integrates a case study from Saudi Arabia (pp. 195-197). Through her research, she sums up that students are able to use English for communicative reasons, still, they are not explicitly acquainted to the standardized American English occurring in the TOEFL. Thus she demands a change in the system of English testing for non-native speakers (p. 204). In the fourth part of the book, Paul Roberts and Suresh Canagarajah (the first is a publisher of ELT books and worked as an English teacher in 8 countries, the other Professor for Language Learning at Pennsylvania State University) open up with a glance spoken English in an international encounter. In order to do so, they concentrate on a conversation between five non-native speaking persons, all of them with a different nationality. Through this procedure they find out that â€Å"ELF 2 speakers have the capacity to negotiate English when the context demands it. † (p. 224). Due to the fact that capacities like this have been left out of linguistic literature so far, the assumption may come up that this is just possible because of the special circumstances both authors created. Be that as it may, it reveals that the strategies of communication are based on the circumstances and not on capability of the speakers themselves. The twelfth chapter is written by Sandra Lee McKay, Professor for English at the University of San Francisco. She concentrates on the pragmatics and EIL pedagogy. The author desires more attention to the teaching of pragmatics in English as an EIL. Mainly paying attention to L2/L2 interactions, the foundation for her argument is built upon the hybridity of modern interactions in English (pp. 127-128). The outcome of her research is that non-native speakers of English are more likely to use constructions or words of their L1 systems. In cases such as this, she proposes the working out of a specific communicative strategy to clarify certain concepts of English (p. 251). The final chapter fourteenth chapter with scholarships and the role of English connected to it. Andy Kirkpatrick, Head of the English Department at the Hong Kong Institute for Education, considers â€Å"the implications of the rise of English as the international language of scholarship for the dissemination of indigenous knowledge. †(p. 255). The main source of his investigation is Chinese medicine and its international transition. With this he proves that a cultural property such as traditional medical procedures, are widely spread across the globe through the help of English language. Still he thinks that this is not a thread to the Chinese tradition because the medical procedures still vary even if they claim to be Chinese. In brief the change in Chinese medicine would have sooner or later anyway (pp. 266-268). The final chapter is contributed by Eric Anchimbe, assistant Professor of English Linguistics at the University of Bayreuth. He analyzes the differences of local and international standards. Therfore he concentrates on Indigenized Varieties of English that have spread in the recent decades and are also referred to as New Englishes. In the following he underlines the differences e. g. to non-native Englishes (pp275-277). Anchimbe proves that the variation of English is not only based on misconception but â€Å"asymmetrical power relations as well as social constructs sustained through colonially-inherited discourses† (p. 84). Also, to him it is inevitable that the language of English changes like everything in the progress of globalization. All in all the contributions to the book are more than satisfactory concerning the actual goal announced by Sharifian in the introduction. However, it is sometimes hard for the reader to draw the connection between goal and entry of the book. The single texts are easy to approach and combine statistical research with comprehensible conclusions. Another point that is well done, is the fact that all texts are written from different authors from different parts of the world. This is of course necessary for a book that researches international facts in English, still the range of countries taken into consideration is remarkable. One point that does not succeed is the division into different chapters and parts. First of all it really confusing regarding the fact that there are so many texts. Also the division does not make sense because many texts have similar approaches and goals and are still not part of the same chapter. In comparison to other linguisitic books of research the topic is rather detailed. Therefore some entries appear to repeat many facts from each other. Still, by taking a closer look to the chapters, it becomes clear that every author uses the points for different ways of arguing in favor or against his topic. I think this book would make a great contribution to every language class. It shows that English is not only substantial in English speaking countries, but all over the world due to economy and culture and the influences of globalization.

To get involved in the case to explain the legal content Essay

To get involved in the case to explain the legal content - Essay Example 736). The first step of setting this particular kind of business structure involves finding a name, which is dissimilar from any other company. However, since your business already has a name, this step will not be necessary. Next step that you will need to consider is filing of your paperwork, also called Articles of Organization (Zhang, 2011, p. 864). You will subsequently need to meet all payment associated with filing of such articles. The next step will involve the creation of an operating agreement, which will lay the framework of how to run the LLC (Oh, 2010, p. 122). It is essential at this point to point that, the operating agreement will define the duties and rights of every member of the LLC. It will also be necessary to make some publications. The next crucial step will involve acquiring permits and licenses that are necessary for the business to operate (Sjà ¶grà ©n et al., 2011, p. 360). Other steps that you may also consider include hiring of employees and announcing the business. Though, you already have TREVCO as the business name, should you consider changing this name as you set on a new business structure, then you need to factor some details. The first requirement for finding an appropriate name for this LLC is total compliance with all governing state rules regarding the names of LLCs (Lauesen, 2011, p. 572). I suggest that you assign one member of the customer relation (CR) to find all the details that pertain to this matter. You may also contact the office within the state government, whose duty involves regulation of corporations and LLCs. A number of rules exist that guide on how to choose a name for any LLC (Gelderblom et al., 2013, p. 1058). First, the chosen name must be original. This implies that the chosen name must not be same as any other LLC, which is already in the file that is in custody of the state government office. The chosen

Photography, Theory and Criticism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Photography, Theory and Criticism - Essay Example Lenbach then accumulated a collection of many photo images that Karl Hann took. Today, Hann’s photography is more attractive than Lenbach portrayal. Members of the prominent Plein-airiste association started by Jules Bastien-Lepage were closely connected with photography from the year 1848 to 1884 (Bates 7). In Germany, there was this belief that art and camera cannot be compatible. This made the artists reserved about their activities. In 1897, the detractor Karl Voll denoted to his friend, the painter about the use of photography but he was not aware that this friend already into photography. In 1920s, the futures of photography had enhanced due to the emergence of many techniques, styles, and approaches that were unique. Within this same period, many photographers were aware of the effects of technology, cinema, and striking art on camera appearance (Bate 7). Baudelaire would be amazed if he had lived long enough to witness the new technological advancement in photography today. Baudelaire believed in nature alone and believed that art is the creation of life. To him, anything that could produce something that appears to look like nature, then it would be absolute of art. He believed that photography and art are the same things because photography gives us precisely what we want. Moholy-Nagy argued that, humanity could defeat the idea of modernity. His photography interest made him believe that artists’ view of vision had to be modernized and encouraged new technologies. The birth of photography was followed by incertitude about science and technological matter and was plagued by political opposition between French and the British, the new pictorial technology appealed extremely to the public imagination. The excitement with which photography was accepted and, the acknowledgment of its significance in providing information assured continuous efforts in centuries a head to advance its procedures and develop its functions (Bate

Information Technology in Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Information Technology in Business - Essay Example It can make employees more comfortable and happy, which in turn yields better results in productivity. It might also be able to conserve on time and resources by making work easier and faster. It is one of the most beneficial creations of the new century, which has taken human life into a new era of technological advancement, into a world where new possibilities are achievable and business experiences a new perspective, which is easier to handle, yet gives you better results, definitely a worthy option to be considered worth applying and thus executing a better corporate position and get endless business opportunities. Information management is one of the fastest growing areas of experimentation these days, with new areas being explored everyday and new evolutions and revolutions taking place in very short lapses of time. (C Kenneth Allard, 2004) The paper talks about the implications of information technology for businesses in order to achieve competitive advantage over other competent business rivals. Further more; it talks about different aspects of IT, the reasons why IT is not the only thing to be considered and finally, the different implications of IT and some examples of the systems that can be used to achieve competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is basically a hold of a particular firm over the industry. It is an advantage that a company has over others due to a particular service that only this particular firm provides or any system that is integrated only in this particular firm etc. In order to maintain its competitive advantage, a company should keep a close watch over its potential competitors in order to minimize the risk of losing its competitive advantage for not being aware enough. It is a position of a firm in the world of business, a space that it enjoys being better than its competitors in a particular area or a general environment. But, no matter how much the competitively advantaged the firm is, its never unbeatable; not even in the cases of a monopoly. The competitive advantage only lasts till the competitors don't have that particular advancement. The moment they do, the competitive advantage is gone. Thus, to conserve the competitive advantage, a firm must keep on updating its status and looking up for more opportunities of advantage. IT & Competitive Advantage: It is one of the biggest factors that help a firm in achieving competitive advantage. It has so many aspects attached to it that one aspect or the other is bound to provide competitive advantage. Nicholas G (2004) described that the only thing that is needed is the eye to look for it and the mind to implement it in a unique, personalized and customized way so that it is integrated in the firm and is hard for the competitors to achieve and thus ensures the possibility of long lived competitive advantage instead of a short lived one. IT assists Business Growth: The organizations and companies are under constant pressure of competition. First this competition was just with the local industries, organizations and companies, but as the world is coming closer and closer every day and is turning into a global village, the circle of competition has grown from local

The Ku Klux Klan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

The Ku Klux Klan - Essay Example born terrorist organization, it is required for us to investigate the beliefs, rituals as well as the strategies of terror of the Ku Klux Klan. The faiths and beliefs of the Ku Klux Klan are fascinating and help delineate the motives and targets for their rituals and strategies of terror. However, there is a correct understanding of the history of the Ku Klux Klan and the United States that helps in understanding the origins of their faiths. By following the Revolutionary War, the United States was led by the main-stream of white Protestants who shared the old Puritan belief in their elite status (Horn, 2006). This group believed that the liability of self-government and the full liberties as well as civil rights profited from independence were in their fit in. many of the white Southerners possessed a long family history of owning slaves and felt supreme to the African Americans. The unshackled blacks living in the South were resented and observed to be inferior by most of the white Southerners. ... ality and democracy, the emergence of Ku Klux Klan followed the Revolutionary War against religious, ethnic, and cultural groups who were targeted as non-Americans (Kelly, 1998). The Ku Klux Klan was founded in the year 1866 by the retired Confederate soldiers who looked for a social group and the activity in order to fulfill their time (Horn, 2006). Firstly, the Klan targeted African Americans as a resource to imitate their humorous pranks on. Nonetheless, the Klan was soon organized in to a military ladder and profited of thousands of members who were politically and emotionally driven against the blacks and equality politics. in following the Reconstruction, Klan members delineated the purpose of their organization as a peace-maintaining organization which was targeted at self-defense. Most of the members feared the rise of independent blacks, thinking that they were becoming violent and threatened the security of the white Southerners. The second era emerged with Klan becoming as a secret organization. However, as noticed by Martin, in the third epoch the Klan grew as a glorified public organization with approximately four million members (Martin, 2006). The widespread recognition of the Ku Klux Klan came from the shared faiths in nativism and wistful ideas of a previous better America. Moreover, with the help of Ridgeway and Stalcup's view, the Klan emerged as an organization which was focused against the rapidly transforming world and the perceived threat to its being and value system (Ridgeway, 1995; Stalcup et. al,

Societal response Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Societal response - Term Paper Example The disintegration of the European feudal society perception on the underclass through the Black plague exemplifies a form of societal collapse. The outcome shows different reactions, on the European side it was a failure while for the underclass it was a break through to exercise their rights because they escaped the burden of the exploitative elites and the onerous taxes. Therefore, though there exists different form societal failure, the outcome presents both beneficial and detrimental effects on both the forces in question (Diamond 5). Societal collapse has been used to express the desertion of human cultures. Nevertheless, a clear explanation as to why such extinctions occur has been escalated by abrupt societal demise such as the Mayan civilization. Similarly, a prolonged decline of a society contributes towards failure to derive a distinct explanation for the society’s failure. A notable example is the observed gradual fall of superpowers such as the East Asia’s Han dynasty and Roman Empire in the Western Europe. These examples show examples of cultures that have failed in regards to self destructing consequences of civilization unlike the preconceived advantages of civilization to other states. Continuously, cultural, social, environmental, and economic factors have been notable as key to collapse of most societies. Just like an out of balance entire system, these factors manifest themselves in a combined form. Diamond presents his perception on the causes of success and failures in a society through several examples. In regards to the examples of two farms, different societies dominate their areas of jurisdiction due to their own strength. Diamond uses two farms Harns and Bans that were similar in sizes (Diamond 21). However, despite their prosperous nature, they are vulnerable because they are located in economically marginal districts. This is based on the short summer growing season that is suitable for pasture production. As a result both farms are vulnerable to becoming extinct due to climatic conditions. Geographical location of the farms limits their access to markets. Both farms are hostages of forces beyond their control such as change of tastes and affluence of the neighbors and customers. However, evaluation of these farms at the moment of prosperity does not guarantee an individual to experet a decline. Similarly societies emerge, dominate their regions but due to factors beyond its control leads to their extinction as noted in Diamond example where Gardar farms has declined while Huls farm has continued to advance. Huls sustenance is attributed to adoption of new cultures such as the advanced technologies. It is inherent that technologically advanced and richest societies suffer economic and environmental problems that need to be taken into account in order to avoid failure of the societies. According to Diamond, appreciation of the past societal transformation provides the current societies with an opp ortunity to avoid failures but rather embrace changes that leads to success. In regards to collapse of Norse Greenland, a past society, Diamond perceives collapse as a drastic decline in political, economic, social complexity and human population. Before a society is termed a collapsed society, arbitrarily is not conceivable on how the society can be defined in order to be classified

Personal Ethics Development Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Ethics Development - Personal Statement Example For an individual to attain a good character which will enable them to live harmoniously with other members of the society, they need exhibit a moral and ethical character that is ideally embodied in being honest, trustworthy, responsible, fair and showing care for others as well as citizenry (Josephson Institute, 2009). Owing to my Christian upbringing in the Episcopal Church, my ethical system has been predominantly influenced by my faith in God and my belief that I should strive to do only what is sanctioned by Him. The ethical system can be defined as the underlying ethical principles, which a person uses to make decisions, I subscribe like most Christians to deontological ethics also known as duty based ethics or non-consequential ethics. I believe that an action is either right or wrong, and my perception of the differentiation is based on biblical teaching, thus regardless of possibly good consequences resulting from a wrong action, the action remains untenable in my opinion. From another theological perspective I would say that I fall into the Absolutist category in terms of ethics and moral responsibility; under this category, the underlying principal is that there is an absolute and objective standard of what is right and wrong, and this is based on biblical teachings. Whenever I am faced with a decision or action, I always pause to ask myself if a Christian should act in such a manner, I do not look first at the benefit that I may gain or the pain I may suffer as a result, but simply aspire to know if it is right and that is all the motivation I need to act or desist. I work as a hospice nurse in addition to being a member of the National Palliative Care and Oncology Nursing Association, my training and experience have on many occasions brought me face to face with the extreme human suffering more with certain death. Working as a nurse, I have found my ethics and beliefs instrumental in making me an efficient nurse since I believe that protection and preservation of human life come before all other things. I admired the compassion of Florence Nightgale who put aside her life purists to ensure that the sick and dying were cared for in a compassionate and caring manner. To a large extent my becoming a nurse was influenced by my admiration of her since I felt that it was both my Christian and moral duty to care for those who are in pain and alleviate their suffering. It may not be as financially rewarding as some other careers I may have opted for, but the fact that it is the right thing to do supersedes the opportunity cost. Others who influenced me included mother Teresa who was in many ways just Nightgale in her selflessness and willingness to risk being infected with disease by living and working with the poor and lepers in Calcutta. My Christian ethics for instance does not allow me to lie or be dishonest even though I may stand to gain and possibly get away with immoral actions, this has sometimes brought me in conflict with some of my friends who think am too timid and rigid. Sometimes in the past I went out with my friends for a party and although I was not drinking like everyone else seemed to be doing, I had a great time. On the way home, one of my friends was driving, I only realized after we were on the highway that he had clearly gone over his alcohol limit when I

Final Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Final Exam - Essay Example The ADA is an array of law related to civil rights, which prohibits discrimination  on the basis of  disability. It is at par in terms of protection of disabled persons against discrimination with Civil Rights Act of 1964. It declared discrimination on the basis of race, religion, sex, national origin and other characteristics as illegal. As per the definition of ADA, disability is in fact a physical or mental incapacitated condition of a person, which restricts his activities with regard to the requirement of major life. However, under specific circumstances e.g. visual impairment found in an individual, if correctable with lenses is excluded from disability (Fielder, 2004). The intention of Lex Frieden and Mitchell J. Rappaport is to ensure protection of disabled against discrimination. The introduction of flexible set of laws aims at to strengthen the law, which may not weaken due to future case law. The need of the hour is to broaden the protection of disabled, which may not put the clock back by the court rulings (Fielder, 2004). The cited law deals with employee’s hiring, firing, training, fringe benefits and other terms and conditions of employment.  Discrimination in line with the broader term can be defined as classifying an employee that has an adverse impact on his or her career, denying employment opportunities, deprive him on account of physical or mental ill health (Fielder, 2004).   The Supreme Court of United States of America found Title I as unconstitutional in the case of  Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett   since it violates the  sovereign immunity  rights of several states as specified (Weber, 2007). The  Equal Employment Opportunity Commission  (EEOC) was charged with interpreting the 1990 law regarding discrimination in employment. Its regulations narrowed down the substantial limits to significant restrictions (Switzer, 2003). The broaden interpretations of "major life

Case Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Case Studies - Essay Example The key market players of the pharmaceutical industry are the companies originating from USA, Japan, Europe, China, and Brazil. The medicines manufactured by the leading pharmaceutical companies are prevalent across the globe. USA is regarded as the world’s largest market of pharmaceutical and is the also the world leader in the Bio pharmaceutical research. 80 Percent of the research and development in pharmaceuticals is conducted in the laboratories of USA (Select USA, 2013). However, USA is largely dependent on the import of generic drugs and 40 percent of the pharmaceutical is consumed in USA (Select USA, 2013). It is believed that the present market situation of Biologic, over the counter (OTC), and generic drugs reflect the potential of the pharmaceutical market (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011). As per the reports of House of Commons, UK around 650 million prescriptions are prescribed by the general practitioners of United Kingdom (UK) itself (House of Commons, 200 5). The National Health Service which is one of the leading medical organizations of UK sells medicines worth ?7 billion every year and 80 percent of these medicines are manufactured by branded companies (House of Commons, 2005). In the UK the pharmaceuticals industry is regarded to be the most profitable sector after Finance and Tourism. Majority of the pharmaceutical company’s revenue is generated from the USA because it is the world’s largest free pricing market for pharmaceuticals. Marketing Environment Analysis The marketing environment analysis will help us in indentifying the factors that affect the company directly and indirectly. The macro environmental factors affect the activities of the company directly and the micro environmental factors affect the activities of the company indirectly. The micro environmental factors constitute of environmental factors like suppliers, distributors, competitors etc. The macro environmental factors constitute of demographic, economic, socio cultural, political, physical and legal factors. The PEST analysis will be instrumental in determining the external threats and opportunities faced by the pharmaceutical industry in the USA. Political Factors Department of Health The US department of health is a government body which regularly monitors the activities of the pharmaceutical companies. The main task of this government body is to scrutinize the license, clinical trials etc of the pharmaceutical companies. Economic The medicines manufactured and sold by the pharmaceutical companies are expensive because these companies incur huge amount of research and development costs. Post recession majority of the established pharmaceutical companies have closed down their research sites because the cost of research and development is too high and the profit earned by these companies is minuscule (The Guardian, 2013). It is observed that the most of the pharmaceutical companies are incurring losses due to the current economic slowdown (Gallagher, 2012). Socio Cultural Factors The sales of the medicines in the USA are largely influenced by the ageing population and the increasing obesity among the youth. Although, post recession the purchasing power of the common people has reduced the demand of the medicines and

Anorexia Nervosa Essay Example for Free

Anorexia Nervosa Essay I. Introduction Anorexia nervosa has received a great deal of attention in the popular media in recent years. This disorder is listed under the category of disorders of childhood or adolescence in DSM-III. Anorexia consists of extreme weight loss due to a reduction in eating. It occurs most frequently in female adolescents; only about 1 in 10 people with anorexia are male. The disorder is believed to be rate, but one study found an incidence of 1 case out of 200 adolescent girls. Anorexia begins when the adolescent starts to diet. The person often has major problems in self-esteem and concerns about physical appearance. Weight reduction may be one way for the person to feel in control of her or his behavior, and to improve self-esteem ( Lager, 2003).   However, for anorexics, dieting gets out of hand. They develop an unreasonable fear of eating, and often suppress hunger by engaging in repetitive activity such as frequent exercising. When anorexics must eat because others (e.g., parent) demand it, they often will induce vomiting after meals to get rid of the food ingested. Even though the anorexic begins to waste away and develops such physical problems as cessation of menstruation (for girls), constipation, and imbalances in body chemistry, she or he is often unconcerned about the life-threatening aspect of the behavior (Darby, 2001). Anorexics continue to perceive themselves as heavier that they really are, and some continue to avoid eating until they die from starvation. Death may occur in up to 15 percent of anorexics. This paper intent to: (1) understand what anorexia nervosa really means and its effects; (2) know the measures for managing anorexia; (3) be aware of the use of pharmacologic agents to stimulate appetite in the terminally ill and; (4) be familiar of the factors influencing nutritional status in varied situations. II. Background Anorexia Nervosa is a psychiatric disorder characterized by an aversion to food and a resulting extreme loss of weight. It is most common in teenage girls and young women. The victims, although not necessarily overweight, become obsessed with a fear of obesity and deliberately subject themselves to a starvation diet (see â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa Overview.† eMedicineHeath. Emergency Care + Consumer Health). The resulting malnutrition typically leads to constipation, vomiting, low body temperature, low blood pressure, and amenorrhea (cessation of menstruation). Victims can lose up to 25 percent of their body weight and, if untreated, may die. Treatment for anorexia consists of hospitalization along with psychotherapy and counseling. Victims are either fed intravenously or are placed on a high-calorie, high-protein diet supplemented by large doses of vitamins. A. What are an anorexia nervosa and its effects? At the other end of the spectrum from obesity is anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder associated with self-imposed starvation. The already underweight person continues to restrict food intake, often to the point where death is a genuine concern. One of the most distinguishing traits of people who have anorexia nervosa is that they do not see themselves as thin (Halmi, 2004). When they look in a mirror, they actually perceive themselves to be overweight or gaining weight. In the latter case they may go out and jog 5 miles or stay up all night jumping jacks. The resulting weight loss and attendant physical stress often lead to an absence of menstruation among females, and the person may look pallid and gaunt. III. Discussion Anorexia is a puzzling disorder. Why would an otherwise healthy young person starve to death? Although some explanations of anorexia have focused on biological causes (a possible malfunction of the hypothalamus which could lead to a lack of desire for food), current views focus on problems in the family which may lead to anorexic behavior. The parents of anorexic adolescents are often very controlling and attempt to order their children’s lives to a greater extent than do parents of non-anorexics. Furthermore, the families are often filled with conflict between family members. Anorexic behavior may be an extreme, distorted attempt by the adolescent to control at least one aspect of her or his own behavior. Treatment of anorexia usually involves several different emphases. If the weight loss is life threatening, medical intervention (e.g., intravenous feeding) is necessary. The reinstitution of eating behavior and achieved using behavioral approaches; however, these gains are often short-lived. Most treatment programs report success rates as high as 86 percent. However, anorexia still results in death for some individuals. A. Measures for managing Anorexia Anorexia is a common problem in the seriously ill. The profound changes in the patient’s appearance and his or her concomitant lack of interest in the socially important rituals of mealtime are particularly disturbing to families. The approach to the problem varies depending on the patient’s stage of illness, level of disability associated with the illness, and desires. Although causes of anorexia may be controlled for a period of time; progressive anorexia is an expected and natural part of the dying process. Anorexia may be related to or exacerbated by situational variables (eg, the ability to have meals with the family versus eating alone in the â€Å"sick room†), progression of the disease, treatment for the disease, or psychological distress. The patient and family should be instructed in strategies to manage the variables associated with anorexia. B. Measures for Managing Anorexia There are many ways in how to manage the patient who suffers from anorexia nervosa and it is divided into two measures, the medical interventions and patient and family tips. a) Medical Interventions The medical group initiates measures to ensure adequate dietary intake without adding stress to the patient at mealtimes and assess the impact of medications (eg,chemotherapy, antiretroviral) or other therapies (radiation therapy, dialysis)that are being used to treat the underlying illness. It administers and monitors effects of prescribed treatment for nausea, vomiting, and delayed gastric emptying and encourages patient to eat when effects of medications have subsided and assess and modify environment to eliminate unpleasant odors and other factors that cause nausea, vomiting, and anorexia. Remove items that may reduce appetite (soiled tissues, bedpans, emesis basins, clutter). This medical group assesses and manages anxiety and depression to the extent possible (see â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa: Treatment.† Mental Health. MayoClinic.com). It also assesses for constipation and/or intestinal obstruction and prevents and manages constipation on an ongoing basis, even when the patient’s intake is minimal. Furthermore, it provides frequent mouth care, particularly following nourishment, ensure that dentures are properly taken care, and administer and monitor effects of topical systematic for oropharyngeal pain. b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Patient and Family Teaching Tips The family reduces the focus on â€Å"balanced† meals; offer the same food as often as the patient desires it and increase the nutritional value of meals. For example, add dry milk powder to milk, and use this fortified milk to prepare cream soups, milkshakes, and gravies. Allow and encourage the patient to eat when hungry, regardless of usual meal times. Eliminate or reduce noxious cooking odors, pet odors, or other odors that may precipitate nausea, vomiting, or anorexia and keep patient’s environment clean, uncluttered and comfortable (Halmi, 2004). Make mealtime a shared experience away from the â€Å"sick† room whenever possible. Reduce stress at mealtimes. Avoid confrontations about the amount of food consumed. Reduce or eliminate routine weighing of the patient. Encourage patient to eat in a sitting position; elevate the head of the patient’s bed. The family plan meals (food selection and portion size) that the patient desires. Provide small frequent meals if they are easier for patient to eat. Encourage adequate fluid intake, dietary fiber, and use of bowel program to prevent constipation (Wrede-Seamn, 1999). C. Use of pharmacologic agents to stimulate appetite in the terminally ill A number of pharmacologic agents are commonly used to stimulate appetite in anorectic patients. Commonly used medications for appetite stimulation include dexamethasone (Decadron), cyproheptadine (Periactin), megestrol acetate (Megace), and dronabinol (Marinol). Dexamethasone initially increases appetite and may provide short-term weight gain in some patients. However, therapy may need to be discontinued in the patient with a longer life expectancy, as after 3 to 4 weeks corticosteroids interfere with the synthesis of muscle protein. Cyproheptadine may be used when corticosteroids are contraindicated, such as when the patient is diabetic. It promotes mild appetite increase but no appreciable weight gain. Megestrol acetate produces temporary weight gain of primarily fatty tissue, with little effect on protein balance. Because of the time required to see any effect from this agent, therapy should not be initiated if life expectancy is less than 30 days. Finally, dronabinol is not as effective as the other agents for appetite stimulation in most patients. Although the use of these agents may cause temporary weight gain, their use is not associated with an increase in lean body mass in the terminally ill. Therapy should be tapered or discontinued after 4 to 8 weeks if there is no response (Wrede-Seamn, 1999). D. Factors Influencing Nutritional Status in varied Situations. One sensitive indicator of the body’s gain or loss of protein is its nitrogen balance. An adult is said to be nitrogen equilibrium when the nitrogen intake (from food) equals the nitrogen output (in urine, feces, and perspiration); it is a sign of health. A positive nitrogen balance exists when nitrogen intake exceeds nitrogen output and indicates tissue growth, such as occurs during pregnancy, childhood, recovery from surgery, and rebuilding of wasted tissue. Negative nitrogen balance indicates that tissue is breaking down faster than it is being replaced. In the absence of an adequate intake of protein, the body converts protein to glucose for energy. This can occur with fever, starvation, surgery, burns, and debilitating diseases. Each gram of nitrogen loss in excess of intake represents the depletion of 6.25 g of protein or 25 g of muscle tissue. Therefore, a negative nitrogen balance of 10g/day for 10 days could mean the wasting of 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) of muscle tissue as it i s converted to glucose for energy. When conditions that result in negative nitrogen balance are coupled with anorexia (loss of appetite), they can lead to malnutrition. IV. Conclusion In conclusion, the prevailing belief among clinical psychologists has been that anorexia arises out of an unstable self-concept. Thus, the commitment to diet and weight control is seen as an attempt to establish a firm sense of identity (Bhanji, 1999). In addition, there is the possibility that this illness, which in about 85 percent of cases occurs in adolescent females, indicates a rejection of traditional feminine roles. Even career patterns play a role. In certain occupations where there is a premium on being thin—for example, ballet dancing—the incidence of clinical anorexia may be great as 50 percent. Further, it has been suggested that malfunctioning neurons in the hypothalamus may alter the metabolism and feeding patterns of people with anorexia nervosa (Leibowitz 2003).   At present, however, the empirical support for underlying neurological disturbances is scant (Logue, 1999).

Media Influences Our Beliefs and Attitudes

Media Influences Our Beliefs and Attitudes Time changed eras changed generation changed channels of communication changed but the way of receiving the information was same through out. Which is that one thing which has not changed? What is it, which we seek in television, radio, newspaper and now the Internet? The answer to all these questions is media and information. For information we only and only rely on media. We live in a mediated world we accept it or not but we are surrounded by media. Media has a kind of an image in the mind of an individual. This is because the communication is presented in a way that the mass audience likes it. Which can be explained by the hypodermic needle theory which media as a direct, immediate and a powerful effect on its audience. What are Media effects? Different researchers had a different viewpoint what they had to say about Media effects but there was no as such definition according to McQuil(1983) there are effects from the media ,though what precisely these effects are and the means by which they can be identified and measured has been the subject of extensive debate (p.175), (Lasswell 1948,emphasis in original ) Who Says What to whom in which channel and to what effect ? , Katz describe the history of communication theory which is swinging between active and passive audience between minimal and powerful effects(1980) Mc Guire noted several of the most commonly mentioned intended media effects which were listed as (a) the effect of advertising on purchasing (b) the effect of political campaigns on voting (b) the effect of public service announcements on personal behavior and social improvement (d) the effect of propaganda on ideology (e) the effects of media ritual on social control and the most commonly ones (f) the effect of media violence on aggressive behavior (g) the effect of erotic and sexual m aterial on attitudes and objectionable behavior(1986, cited in Elisabith M Perse ,p.1). Media impacts many facets of our daily lives and even contribute to our scene of personnel identity how we dress for work, sometimes the route we take for work, what we plan to do this weekend our general feeling of wellbeing or insecurity, the focus of the world beyond immediate experiences and our concerns about the issue of the day all are influenced by what we see in media news Maxwell McCobs and Sheldon Gilbert (1986). As it is not easy to accept in the same way it is not easy to argue as well that media has influence not only on an individual but also on the society, which we live in. What do mass communication actually do to us, both individually and collectively [society]? Lowery and DeFleur (1995 Quoted in Brian ONeil p.320) The study of media influence is important so that we can increase the understanding of the role media plays in shaping our lives, views and personal identity. It is because the media are central to our everyday lives that we must study them à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ as social and cultural as well and the political dimensions of the modern world Roger Silverstone (1999). The essay is going to include first the introduction, what are media effects? Secondly a brief history about media effects from the time of World War 1 till date, thirdly different ways in which media affects an individual with relevant effect theories, Scholarly research and examples of the same. Lastly to conclude with my viewpoint and the just of the scholars arguments. HISTORY Going back into the history there were three phases in which the effect tradition could be described how over the period of time medias relation with its audience changed with its changing effects. The first phase, called as powerful media started from World War 1 until the late 1930 was the time when media was known to have powerful effects on its audience it could change habits, opinions and viewpoints of the people. Which were mostly in the hands of the controllers Bauer and Bauer (1960 cited in Denis McQuail p.458). Then second phase which was called Testing media power now this phase was the time to put theoretical knowledge to test that was what people thought in phase one was that actually happening did media has its effect. A well stated example of this in the early 1930s research literature by the series of Payne fund studies in the United States Blumer,Blumer and Hauser,Petroson and Thurstone (1933). The main focus was children and young people how films as media influenced them? This era of media research last until the 1960s. The concentration was mainly on the films and the other types of media how they can be used for brainwashing and informing. Some of the examples of this are campaign, which was designed for the United Nations to improve on their public support Star and Hughes (1950 cited in Denis McQuail p.458). Investigating the capabilities of democratic election campaigns Lazarsfeld et al. (1944) and Berelson et al. (1954). As the time passed away the nature of research changed as there were new accepts which should be taken in account earlier the researchers saw the effects according to the social and psychological characters then later it went on to the intervening effects and lastly why people were listening to media, the purpose The end of this era was marked by the illusion which resulted in the this kind of media effect research (e.g. Berelson, 1959)(Denis McQuail). Klapper says that limited and minimum effects in the fear of brainwashing were seen to be over hyped and to form a opinion was a complex social process in which media played an integral part but not the complete role (1960). The third phase that was called Return of powerful media started in 1960 which started from the year 1960, which marks the return of the powerful media which is still there till today dealing with the effects and issue of media violence, functions of media in socialization diffusion and formation of ideology (McQuail 1983,p.178) Media had no effects or negligible effects this was the conclusion which was written in the text books which was challenged by researches who thought this was a made up story there were many evidences which could prove that media have social impact and could be used for exercising social and political power (for example, Lang and Lang, 1981;McGuire, 1973;McLeod et al., 1991) The evidence available by the end of 1950s,even when balanced against one of the negative findings, gives no justification for an overall verdict of media importance (1981:659)according to them the no effect imagination was not because of one factor but was a combination of different factors . The most highlighted one was short-term effect like the election tenor. One of the major reasons that contributed to unwillingness to accept minimal effects was the arrival of television in 1950s and 1960s as this was the new medium, which seems more powerful as it had visuals. The third phase was still looking for the potential effects according to the new concepts. The investigations that were done before relied on the model that the more exposure to media had more effects. Change in media power with change in time As we read in the history different phases of media power and how the power of media changes with the change in time. The main reason for the argument in the effects from the time of powerful -limited more powerful model is that the world was changing all this while Carey (1988 quoted in Denis Mc Quil , 2005,p.462). We cannot deny the fact that media are influential. There are many examples to explain this statement like impingement of communism in Europe or to international conflicts such as Gulf and Balkan wars of the 1990s and the Afghanistan and the Iraq wars that followed 9/11 (Denis McQuail 2005,p.463). It is only through media that people do know about such historic events as the time has changed probably people are more dependent on the media when information is concerned (Ball-Rokeach and DE Fleur, 1976;Ball-Rokeach, 1985; 1998,cited in Denis Mcquil 2005 p.463). When we look at television there is a huge difference in content and as a social experience from the 1950s to 19 80s (this was the time when first research took place) till now where the television experience has changed again. This clearly states that media is not constant it changes with time. The different models of media effects: (Perse, 2001:51) Direct: it is quite self-explanatory the effect is immediate, constant and observable its a short term effect which emphasis on change where media content is silent, awakening and truth. Conditional: It depends from person to person reinforcing of change in the thought process towards awareness and knowledge, emotional influence and behavioral it can be short term and long-term effect. Cumulative: it based one exposer to many thing not one in particular it is either cognitive or emotional in very few cases it is behavioral. It has a long lasting effect. The media content is accordant, re occurring and across channels. Cognitive transactional: the effect is immediate and short term it is based on a small exposure it s cognitive and effective; behavioral effects are possible. There are different theories, which explain and talk about the effects what sort of effects every theory looks into the media effects on its own prospective Short Term Effects: In the earlier times when we look into media research, the model, which strikes the mind, was simple stimulus response model that means media provided the agent and the response to it was change in opinion or something like this. This approach was not was not accepted. People dont react to anything immediately and if they do then media is not the only reason behind it , there are many other reason as well . Sometimes this approach was also know as the hypodermic needle /bullet effect this was basically as if some people were injected with some media information and they reply to it accordingly Graeme burton(2002). One of the famous example which is stated by the theorist for this theory is in the year 1939 the War Of The Worlds by H.G.Wells the broadcast of this science fiction created a panic amongst the people and this was purely the effect of the broadcast. On the contrary it is said that the circumstance in which the broadcast was herd this would not be sufficient to explain the affect of strong feeling or the judgment that was passed by an individual Brian ONeil (2011). The argument, which was given, was that psychological personality traits like self-conviction, religious beliefs and self-expectance these were the traits, which made an individual to believe what they were listening to Cantril(1940 ,cited in Brian ONeil,2011,p.324) . To add to this according to another theorist this incident was just being exaggerate Heyer(2005 cited in Brian ONeil,2011,p.324). On the contrary it is said that there is no such proof, which can Cleary demonstrate that media violence leads to violent behavior. If we look into the example of September 2000 where a 15-year-old boy from Florida was accused his abuse of his 8-year-old sister. He said he got this idea from seeing Jerry Springer Show when looked into the mater the statement made was false he was lying the show was totally blameless. Graeme Burton (2010) Two -step flow theory: The theory states that media influences us in two different phase. The first phase comprises individuals who pay lot of attention to media and it message and receive information from them the second phase comprises of opinion leaders, members of peer group family, friends people on whom we rely the most. We listen to what they want to say and not the media. If media influenced them then we would be influence indirectly Graeme Burton (2002). One of the important part of the work is to see how active or passive we are as receivers of the communication Elihu Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955). Unlike the hypodermic needle theory this theory lacked on media effects it emphasis more on human agencies lowery and DeFleur . Uses and gratification theory: What do people do to the media(katz2006, p.xviii) The uses and gratification theory says that the audience is active. The theory explains that the audience consumes media to gratify or satisfy their own needs for information, entertainment, knowledge, personal identity and social definition Graeme burton(2002). Media message cannot influence a person who does not have any use of those messages consumed Katz (1959). Example: There were several examples, which state that there are some, or the other needs of an individual which are fulfilled by consuming media. Radio quiz programs and its listeners Satisfaction of watching a soap opera which need or gratification was obtained? (Herzog1940, 1944 quoted in Chris Newbolt, 1995,p.121) and why does one read newspaper? Was it for information, entertainment or to while away the time which need was fulfilled? (Berelson, 1949). All these experiments were done to state consumption of different kinds of media gave what kind of satisfaction or which need of the audience. Effects can be of different kinds/types and vary from person to person. Few of them are listed below: Attitude change: Media has the power of changing peoples way of thinking or looking at the world. This means they change the attitude towards a person or issues Graeme Burton (2002). Media is highly effective in creating attitudes on newly arisen or newly evoked issues(Joseph Klapper) Moral/Panic: Media have the effect of anxiety, fear, and anger about issues. Issues can be anything. These reactions are joint actions experienced by a group Denis Mc Quail (2005). Personal Response/Emotional Response: These reactions are basically unplanned and depend from individual to individual, taking an example of an anti aging cream people ignore the fact that the product is not appropriate because the skin cannot generate cells at a certain point in age (Graeme burton2002; Denis Mc Quail 2005). Some of the major issues on which media effects/influence research has been done are stated below: Children and Media: When a child is concerned it automatically becomes a special case when we talk about influence as it is assumes to be vulnerable. The impact of television on children Can lead to Violence One of the major concerns what parents have is impact of television violence on their children. The concern is that television has portrayals of violence throughout and children are affected by these portrayals more easily because they are at growing age they dont have the understanding. As this is not only the case with kids but similar reasons are given for adult violence as well John P.Murray(1993). There were many researchs done which concluded that media violence can lead to short term changes like attitude and behavior changes (bandura, D.Ross, S.Ross, 1961;berkowitz, 1962). Example: Murder of James Burgler in 1993 this was the influence of violence video over 2 school boys David Buckingham (2001) Another great research bobo doll experiment which concluded that children exposed to violent model were more likely to act aggressively than those who were not exposed to such situation Albert Bandura (1961). According to Ferguson this research was not related to child aggression but this research was motivated to please the adults (2010) Contrary to this research it is said that some children to whom television effect will not be good in a certain condition and some children to whom in some other condition the television effect would be good or to other kids in the same condition television effect will be different (Schramm;Lyle and Parker 1961,p.13). There have been many researchers, which stated the positive influence Friedrich, and Stein that viewing Master Roger did not have any impact on their behavior where as it widen their knowledge. A very strange result was noticed the children who watched Minster roger seemed to be more helpful they were likely to play more cooperatively with their peers. (1975 cited in Jerome Johnston James S.Ettema p.144). Affect education What or rather I should say who is it we blame if the child is not getting good marks? There are only 2 people who we tend to blame for our childrens performance one the school in which he/she studies or the teachers. So the blame game is totally on the school. But wait lets think on it once again is it really the teachers to be blamed? Teachers are doing the same job which they use to do 10-12 years ago something is there, which is different? What is that something? The answer is Television. The current estimate states that a child spends twice the time in watching television than in the classroom studying. It is very surprising to see that it is 22,000 hours of television is consumed before a child passes his/her high school Don Oldenburg (1992). Heavy viewing of television by kids show lower information, lower knowledge, lower concentration lower reading ability it lead to aggressive behavior as compared to the kids watching less television (Jerome L. Singer, n.d). On the contrary it was said that studies found out that there was no as such evidence which proved that watching television had negative effects like lower concentration and less reading ability and things like that (Neumanns, 1991 cited David Gauntlett in 2005). The Recent statistics In the year 2008 there was survey done Dr. Tanya Byron where the question was about the effects. Result of the survey was that 83% of the parents thought that watching TV was entertaining followed by education 58% and relaxation 53% and only 4 % said it was dangerous. Parents also felt that there child had gained an expended imagination 63% and increase in vocabulary and over two fifth said that their child had developed 28% said that it was used as a kind of activity. So this shows the television effects were positive according to the parents. There was no kind of violence seen or a negative effect was observed (2008 p.8). There has been no perfect evidence which proves that media is the only cause of violence. But it can be said that media can lead to change in attitude and responses towards violence. This kind of a response could be because of 2 reason first media and the real life experiences. Media and the society As we know media plays an integral role in our lives. This media is the only medium of so many debates discussions like does television has any effects on our children? Does advertising influence us as consumers? Last but lot the least is violence because of media? A long list of question which because all this is a part of the society which we live in David Croteau and William Hoynes(2003). Thinking about the impact of media on the society is exhibited in the conventional history by the abound view of media being powerful and quite much effective on the powerless and passive audience which can be described by the Hypodermic Needle Model also called the Magic Bullet, it assumed that the media were so powerful that they could inject their messages as the name suggests hypodermic needle the needle is injected. The advertising messages were targeted as magic bullets. (Dennis and wartella1996, p.169) Katz and lazars Feld (1955) says, The image of the mass communication process entertained by the researchers had been one of the atomistic mass of millions of readers, listeners and movie goers prepared to receive the message; secondlyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ every message was conceived of as a direct and powerful stimulus to action which will elicit immediate response Campaign and Advertising Campaign is basically used to affect the behavior of the public for their health of their safety. Campaign can be classified in two parts one is political campaign as the name suggests its agenda is politics (election, voting) and the other is public service campaign, which is in favor of public beneficial for them like (campaign on family planning, smoking and issues like aids). Campaigns reach to large amount of public there were a lot many researches done, which showed that there was a change in knowledge and attitude but no change was shown on the behavior David Gauntlett(2005). Political Campaign: These could always be traced back at the time of election as earlier said there were many research done to see weather political campaign has any effect on the voting patters of an individual. The two major studies which were done in this field first study was people choice 1940 elections of Ohio and the main reason behind these research was to find out that do people vote because of some influence? This research took place in 1932 just before the television came in as a medium of communication and radio was the medium at present. The result was that 8 % were actually converted 53% voted because of their own beliefs and understanding 14% were influenced to vote and lastly 25% had minimal effect, which was next to nothing. The findings of the research was that a) people are influence by peer group or opinion leaders people who they rely on trust like friends, family etc. b) There was not the same effect on every1 that is everyone responded to media in their own way c) it was not the campaign through which people got the information but through people Paul Lazerfield, Bernard Berelson Hazel Gandet(). The second one was called Unseeing eye 1972 elections between George MC Govern and Richard Nixon. The result was similar to the first one political campaigns had less effect on the people Thomas.E Pattreson Robert D.Mc.Clure() On the contrary Mc Combs and Shaw whose research was also into political communication and voting behavior and the research was done on US presidential election in 1968 where the research was on how newspaper, journalists and editors play a vital role in making the audience perceive political reality in their own way. The research ended with a conclusion, which was quite different from the earlier research that was the information which was given to the public didnt only make them aware about the issue of the political campaign but also made them think that this issue was important and will effect us only. So here the political campaign seemed to be quite effective (1972). Public service campaigns: these campaigns were basically for the wellbeing of an individuals who made the society. There were many research which were done on this criteria like did people reduced smoking or stopped smoking after seeing the PSA which talks about increased cancer risk due to smoking. One of the projects was called North krelia project a program whose main aim was to reduce heart diseases in Finland. There were 1.75 US billion dollars spent on this campaign and the result of this was that smoking declined amongst men by 34% and rate on women smoking went up slightly (Puska et al., 1985 cited in DAVID GAUNTLETT (2005). Another example is increasing population level the problems of developing countries social marketing approach was introduced, promotion of contraceptive pills and condoms Atkin Meichke(1989) .In Bangladesh the sales of condom graph saw a unbelievable rise in 1976 -10 million to 82 million in 1983 and India saw an increase of almost 400% and by 1984 these had almost doubled again to 200 million per year DAVID GAUNTLETT (2005).The research ended by saying that media is just an helper to influence where the messages are reinforced by verbal communication. We have seen that it created a positive sign in most of the experiments but still it cannot be correctly judged that campaign has any effect or not. Advertising Advertise which means to draw attention. Advertisement addresses us as shoppers or consumers rather than Citizens. The prime focus is that we are the potential buyers Lewis et al (2005).It is quite difficult to access the effect of advertising on an individual and society because advertising does not make an individual do something which one would not like to do , it just tries to change our behavior. Advertising can make product A look better than product B but if observed would be no difference as such and thus it influences our purchasing decision DAVID GAUNTLETT(2005). It is not just advertising which makes a person go and buy a product in the market gone are the days when people use to understand advertisements are ficious created by advertisers to sell their product now days consumers are exposed to advertisements day in day out the only factor which makes them but the product is top of mind recall that is by repetitiveness of the advertisement Rachel Eyre(2002). Another researcher says that advertisement is not only the factor for buying a product there is other factors like packaging and distribution which influences buying decision Schudson (1933). Where on the contrary leiss et al. (2005) says there could be many reasons why advertisements may not work. Example: 1980 coffee consumption feel at the time when expenditure on coffee advertisement was rising. 1985 coke fiasco when the audience did not accept the new taste Graeme Burton(2011). As said by all the researchers advertising does influence us but it is not the whole sole influencer behind our buying.

The Importance Of Effective Communication Information Technology Essay

The Importance Of Effective Communication Information Technology Essay Effective communication is crucial to successful performance of teams and for project completion in the construction industry. Various organisations are involved in contributing the delivery of technically complex and schedule driven projects. Why should be there research in this area This dissertation will derive from knowledge obtained from understanding the theories and practices of communication in construction projects, along with knowledge of developments in communication methods implemented during construction phases. The effectiveness of communication methods used between the principal contractor and the design team will be analysed and key issues in communication identified. This in turn will help to understand the reason behind ineffective communication that causes numerous problems in project processes. How are you going to do it? Key findings Introduction Construction is a project oriented industry, and many of the projects are of great magnitude, involving various organisations and teams working to meet projects objectives. No one in the construction industry today would deny that effective communication is crucial for the successful performance of teams and projects. Emmitt and Gorse (2003). This dissertation will be investigating the relationship between a medium sized contractor and a design team working on traditional contract project. The idea for this dissertation derived from comments received on rising issues in communication that continue to cause inconsistencies during projects activities as a result of ineffective communication. Construction projects are complex and risky endeavours, containing a variety of elements that cause projects to run overtime, over budget and produce poor quality results. During the design and construction stages of the project there are numerous communication channels created between the design team and the main contractor, in order to allow information related to projects activities to be disseminated among the participants. For this information to be sent and received accurately and clearly amid designer and a contractor, it is imperative that the relationship between these key parties include competent communicators and effective communication tools in order to interact successfully. During design and construction stages of the project it is of high importance that the accuracy of information that is being transferred between these parties is effectively communicated, as this, in turn will greatly affect the teamwork and positively influence the progress of the project throughou t its duration. (reference) Effective communications is essential to a successful construction project. If participants are unable to communicate information, ideas and issues simply and clearly to others then the project is unlikely to succeed. (Reference). Dainty et al. (2006, p. 5) argue that communication in construction is multifaceted and inherently complex, encompassing several dimensions on individual, group and organizational levels: not only does it involve the transfer of information, but also it bridges distances, is the basis of interaction between people, and conveys feelings, values and beliefs. The problem occurs when communication is handled inadequately during numerous activities. The information that is disseminated between involved, or project related parties can be inaccurate, unclear or misunderstood. This information is distributed using variety of methods and tools, and its the skill of the sender and the circumstances as well as competence of the receiver that may affect this information to be communicated effectively. Whether the specification designed by the architect is clear, whether the participants of the projects understand the information, and if not how effectively can they inform the issue, or if its been noticed at all. Effective Communication methods during all these phases of the project are key aspects to successful construction. This dissertation will be presenting a relationship between a medium sized contractor and the design teams. Aims and Objectives Structure of Dissertation Literature Review Emmitt and Gorse (2003) state that communication is implicit in everything we do. In other words that anything we do with other people must involve some sort of communication, Harley (1999) backs up this argument. Thomas, Tucker and Kelly (1998), explain in simple terms that communication is the sending and the receiving between the team members. This is similar to Cherry (1978) who states that communication is the process of interaction between individuals in which meaning is created and shared. One must understand that when relating this process to construction, communication is one of the most utilised activities. This is because as Betts (1991) states; construction is a complex and managerial activity, involving many different individuals and organisations interacting within a project environment. It is important to understand why effective communication is crucial in project oriented organisations; this is because there is a direct relationship between communications effectivene ss and projects success. Thomas, Tucker and Kelly (1998), Emmitt and Gorse (2003) emphasise that good communication within an organisation and between organisations contributing to the construction project can improve motivation levels and improve production process. Ballad and Howell (2003) included the importance of successful communication in the lean project management, claiming that if communication is effectively utilised in the project then this greatly improves the chances of projects success in terms of on time delivery and reduction in costs. Consequently, inadequate communication can result in a de-motivated workforce and lead to problems in production. Emmitt and Gorse (2003) follow this up by saying that poor co-ordination and communication of design information leads to design problems that cause design errors. These acknowledgements of significance to effective communication have lead me to believe that if in construction project communication is ineffective then this issue can play a vital element in why a construction project fails to deliver or achieve objectives. This is backed up by Thomas, Tucker and Kelly (1998), who explain that project performance can be enhanced through the implementation of effective project communications and conversely, projects can fail if hindered with poor communications. To achieve effective communication in construction projects, it seems that there are numerous factors that require investigating and understanding, before effective communication can be introduced and implemented. (REFERENCE) The question is then; how does a project oriented organisation achieve effective communication? And what could be the causes of ineffective communication that result in inconsistencies during the construction phases? Emmitt and Gorse (2003) state that; effective communication lies at the heart of a business, inherent in leadership and management. Thomas, Tucker Kelly (1998) also say that projects characteristics such as structure, size and location influence the effectiveness of communication. During my studies I have gathered common views that are related to issues during construction phase and post construction that were caused by ineffective communication between the main contractor and the design team. Through further research I wish to understand how effective communication can be achieved in these cases, and possibly unravel these issues in construction projects. Communication Process Communication is the activity or process of expressing ideas and feelings or of giving people information. (Oxford Dictionary 2009) Betts (1991) states that information in construction projects is diverse in terms of its form, its subject and its source. The information that is available also differs with regard to its currency, accuracy, adequacy and relevance. Emmitt and Gorse (2003) add to this, stating that communication and information management is a prime activity in construction. The entire construction process relies on vast quantities of information being generated, transmitted and interpreted to enable a project to be built, maintained and reused. This is backed up by Winch (2009) who states that information flows are the heart of business process in all organisations. Based on this, communication can be a complex process especially in project oriented organisations. This is why it is essential that before effective communication can be explored, one must understand the process of communication. Thomas, Tucker Kelly (1998), say that there is a common set of elements essential to an understanding of communication. Emmitt and Gorse (2003) state that the process method sees communication as the transmission of messages, through which one person or parties seek to influence the behaviour or state of mind of the other. They also add that for communication to be effective the message must first be received and then understood by the receiver. Thomas, Tucker Kelly (1998) also explain that the communication process consists of a Sender and the Receiver. The sender acts as the originator of the communication and knows best the intended idea; therefore the sender must encode the idea into the message that is to be sent. Comprehension of the message by the receiver depends on a number of factors including how much the individual knows about the topic, the relationship and trust that exists between the sender and the receiver. And the receivers understanding and perception of the information being conveyed. Emmitt and Gorse (2003) have also recognised that there often more than one receiver of the message. Thomas, Tucker Kelly (1998) complete this by adding that the message is the encoded idea being transmitted and can be verbal or non verbal. Emmitt and Gorse (2003) explain effective communication is complete when this process is carried out successfully where the sender and receiver achieve a common understanding. Clampitt (2005) discussed the arrow approach where communication is rather like shooting an arrow at a target and is seen as a one-way activity based primarily on the skills of the sender. Harley (1999) also discusses this understanding of communication process and adds his theory supporting Calmpitt in his 1st addition, with a fundamental belief is that Effective Expression = Effective Communication. Winch (2009) states that all organisations are in essence information processing systems. Communication methods implemented in a project oriented organisations all transfer information from one face to another. Winch (2009) explains that the problems in construction projects arise when ineffective communication causes a poor information flow which results in inconsistencies in the project. Emmitt and Gorse (2003) also state that the people build and these people must communicate with one another effectively in order to achieve their common objective. Communication inconsistencies Emmitt and Gorse (2003) believe that communication barriers are evident whenever people meet. They state that trust and the relationship between two communicating parties is very important in ensuring effective communication. Bowen and Edwards (1996) recognise that one of the major barriers to effective communication is in the way of a gatekeeper. A gatekeeper is used to describe the behaviour of an individual who withholds or alters information as it passes him or her. Emmitt and Gorse (2003). Bowen and Edwards (1996) expand on this idea by stating that message distortion is likely to occur where there is an absence of direct communication. Emmitt and Gorse (2003) explain that new IT technologies are welcome, as they provide a convenient tool through which organisations use to transmit, store and access vast quantities of information very rapidly. However, they explain that industry now focus too much on the power and speed of the systems and not enough on the message being transmitted, or the requirements of the users. Winch (2002) has compared and explained that when the interfaces between systems were paper backed systems, it does not matter that different formats were used to create the message. However, when computers started to communicate directly with one another this has become a problem. As it is often seen that the receiver is unable to read the information because the sender has sent it in a different format. This has now become a new problem. Alternatives in Communications Different methods of communications Verbal and non verbal communication- effectiveness of both, different circumstances.