Drug Discovery Process Of The Bio Pharmaceutical Industry Biology Essay

Drug Discovery Process Of The Bio Pharmaceutical Industry Biology Essay The development of new pharmaceutical products is a long, expensive and uncertain process. It takes an average of 10 to 15 years for a new drug to move from the discovery phase into the marketplace, and the average cost for the development of a new drug is approximately $800 million. Out of 6000 compounds initially screened, only 6 are selected to move onto clinical trials, and out of those 6, only 1 compound is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the product is introduced into the market. The low success rates associated with new drug development is what makes the demand for resources at different stages of the development pipeline highly variable and very difficult to predict. Even after a drug is launched into the market, success is not guaranteed as toxic side effects may erupt when the drug is introduced to a larger sample of diverse population. This unpredictable process together with the companys annual fixed cost of Research and Development creates a major financial risk. Nevertheless, pharmaceutical firms decide to undertake this risky process because of the opportunity to develop a blockbuster drug, a drug that generates $1 billion or more each year in sales revenue for the company, and has the capacity to meet unmet medical needs of the population. Pre-Discovery To Understand the Disease Before any potential new medicine can be discovered, scientists work to understand the causes as well as other underlying factors in relation to the disease to be treated as well as possible. Target Identification (Choose a molecule to target with a drug) Once they have enough understanding of the underlying cause of a disease, pharmaceutical researchers select a target for a potential new medicine. A target is generally a single molecule, such as a gene or protein, which is involved in a particular disease. Even at this early stage in drug discovery it is critical that researchers pick a target that is drugable, i.e., one that can potentially interact with and be affected by a drug molecule. Target Validation (Test the target and confirm its role in the disease) After choosing a potential target, scientists must show that it actually is involved in the disease and can be acted upon by a drug. Target validation is crucial to help scientists avoid research paths that look promising, but ultimately lead to dead ends. Researchers demonstrate that a particular target is relevant to the disease being studied through complicated experiments in both living cells and in animal models of disease. Various stages in Drug Development Process The drug development process is highly regulated and follows a number of well-defined steps and milestones. Discovery and screening stage Emerging tools in molecular biology, cell biology and combinatorial chemistry help researchers understand diseases and identify specific targets for new drugs. Once a specific target is identified, drug development starts with the screening of a large number of compounds to find the non-toxic compounds with the desired biological effects. Typically, thousands of chemical compounds are tested in test tubes or individual cells (tissue cultures). Drug companies maintain large libraries of newly synthesized or isolated compounds. Compound from these libraries are tested for biological activity. Preclinical testing Preclinical testing involves a series of short term and long term animal and laboratory tests to generate data on if a compound is safe and worthwhile to test on people. The aim of preclinical testing is to understand what happens when the drug is metabolized, as well as to generate information about the optimal dose for the clinical trials. Animal studies provide data on the absorption, distribution and excretion of the compound. The chemical properties of the discovered compounds are studied in significant detail at this step. Steps for synthesis and purification are developed at this time. These help identify any acute toxicity issues that may arise. It usually takes 3-4 years to gather data in support of Investigational New Drug Application (IND). This application notifies the Food and Drug Authority (FDA) of the drug sponsors intent to conduct clinical research on human. In parallel with the animal studies, the company has to conduct studies to determine how to manufacture repro ducible batches over time. Clinical trials The ultimate goal of clinical trials is to determine whether the drug works well enough in patients. The trials should address: whether the risk of toxic side effects outweighs the therapeutic benefit; which dose regimen provides the best response and the least number of side effects; if the drug is better than existing treatments or not. Clinical trials are divided in three phases Phase I (PI): In Phase I trials, the candidate drug is tested in people for the first time. These studies are usually conducted with about 20 to 100 healthy volunteers. The main goal of a Phase I trial is to discover if the drug is safe for humans. Researchers look at the pharmacokinetics of a drug: How is it absorbed? How is it metabolized and excreted from the body? They also study the pharmacologics of a drug: effects of the drug on the functioning of the human body. These closely monitored trials are designed to help researchers determine what the safe dosage range is and if it should move on to further development. Phase II (PII): The goal of this phase is to evaluate the effectiveness of the drug for a particular indication and how the drug behaves in people. These studies typically include 100-500 patients with a target disease or indication, divided into several subgroups. The subgroups are administered the drug in different dosages, by different routes, and on different schedules. Efforts are made to determine the common short term side effects and other risks associated with the drug when used on human beings. Phase III (PIII): The studies in this phase are conducted over a long term and on a large sample of 1000-1500 patient volunteers. The basic aim of this phase is to generate statistically significant data, about to evaluate the risks and benefits associated with the drug. The effectiveness and safety of the drug is carefully examined and dosing regiments duly noted which will lead to the FDA and the international regulatory agencies to approve the new drug. The results from these studies are used to develop the DRUG LABEL. The Drug Discovery process has many issues like Long Lead Times and Uncertainty that are plaguing the whole process and causing disturbances/tremors along the lines of New Product Development. Literature review A stochastic programming approach for clinical trial planning in new drug development Matthew Colvin, Christos T. Maravelias Due to changing circumstances in the managed-health-care environment, the profit margins of pharmaceutical companies and the productivity of their Research and Development (RD) pipelines have started to decline; effective patent lives have been shortened, and patents provide lower barriers to entry even while active. Therefore, it is imperative for pharmaceutical companies to manage their RD pipelines more effectively to reduce the cost of developing new drugs. This is a challenging task due to the highly stochastic nature of the RD process: if a drug fails a clinical trial, its development stops and all prior investment is lost; if it passes all trials, it enters the marketplace and profits are typically significantly larger than development costs. To effectively plan the clinical trials in the pharmaceutical RD pipeline, therefore, new systematic stochastic optimization methods are necessary.The paper presents a multi-stage stochastic programming formulation for the scheduling of c linical trials in the pharmaceutical research and development (RD) pipeline. The stages correspond to time periods, i.e. the planning horizon is divided into multiple periods. Scenarios are used to account for the endogenous uncertainty (a drug either passes or fails a clinical trial) in clinical trial outcomes. Given a portfolio of potential drugs and limited resources, the model determines which clinical trials (PI, PII, PIII) to be performed in each planning period and scenario in order to maximize the expected net present value of the RD pipeline. The proposed formulation can be used to address problems of medium size and serves as a basis for the development of advanced models for the management of the pharmaceutical RD pipeline. Knowledge networking to support medical new product development Kannan Mohan, Radhika Jain, Balasubramaniam Ramesh Pharmaceutical firms depend heavily upon their ability to rapidly develop and introduce new products into the market. Product development speed directly impacts their financial bottom-line as well as their ability to satisfy unmet medical needs of patients. However, development of new medical products is complex and time-consuming. It takes anywhere between 7 and 17 years and several millions to billions of dollars to launch new medical products. Some of the factors contributing to the length, cost, and uncertainty of this process are the stringent regulatory requirements of governmental entities like the FDA requiring the maintenance of design history for every medical product to show that the products were developed as per the approved plan and with extensive clinical trials, medical products are used to treat human beings whose well-being and safety are of utmost importance. Thus, failure of the product can have serious consequences, increasing possibilities for therapeutic interv ention brought about by newer technologies and enormous investments required in research and development, and testing. This paper addresses the issue of developing an approach to seamlessly integrate fragmented knowledge using knowledge networks. Semantic knowledge networks provide the ability to describe and follow the life of a physical or conceptual artefact. These have been used as effective solutions to support knowledge integration in knowledge intensive processes in multiple domains. Motivated by their effectiveness in supporting knowledge intensive processes, the paper proposes the creation and use of knowledge networks to facilitate integration of knowledge fragments that are generated and used in medical NPD. The development of a knowledge network should be guided by the unique characteristics of the medical NPD domain. The paper also provides the background on the process of medical NPD, along with unique issues in this area. New product development process and time-to-market in the generic pharmaceutical industry Janez Prasnikar, Tina Skerlj This article presents some important factors impacting on the lead-time of new products. In particular, we find a negative relationship between the incorporation of organizational tools and techniques, such as concurrent activity management and time-to-market. Further, there is an appropriate negative relationship between the integration of new product development departments in particular phases of the new product development process and the cycle-time of those phases. Appropriate capacity management and project management also contribute to a shorter lead-time of a new product. However, there are also some particularities of generic pharmaceutical companies. The retargeted products (where an existing product is launched in a new market) have longer time-to-market than completely new products. The generic pharmaceutical industry depends very much on local market conditions and it is often easier to launch new products in already existing markets than to launch existing products in n ew markets. Further, if the active pharmaceutical ingredient is sourced externally the time-to-market is shorter. The same is true of the external sourcing of the pharmaceutical formulation. Since generic companies often build their competencies in the market rather than on the technology used, strategic alliances and early supplier involvement in the new product development are important factors of their market success. Research objectives The Biopharmaceutical industry has many a process to be deeply understood and uniquely mapped, however, I would be looking at the following for the purpose of my project To understand the Drug Discovery Process and map it with New Product Development Understand how a pharmaceutical product is produced; identify all the stages from the Pre discovery phase to the Discovery phase and from the Pre clinical phase to the Clinical Phase and map it with New Product Development Identify the sources for reducing Uncertainty in the Drug Discovery Process One of the features that restrict the smooth functioning of the Drug Discovery process is uncertainty about the drug in trail. If the drug that is being tested fails the clinical trials phase, all the investment and effort towards drug development is lost, but if it passes all the trials, it enters the marketplace and benefits the company by providing profits that are typically significantly larger than the development costs. Identify the sources for reducing Lead Time in the Drug Discovery Process Drug development in the pharmaceutical sector is a lengthy process ranging anywhere from 7 to 17 years and costs the companies billions of dollars. Thus identification of sources for reduction in lead time and appropriate application of those steps would directly influence the costs and help in launching the product quicker than usual into the market. Research methodology Interaction with Biopharmaceutical Teams working on the Drug Discovery Process at the Biological Sciences and Biological Engineers (B.S.B.E) department at Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur Secondary Research from Scientific Journals Case study approach in Business Press and Scientific Journals Chapters Introduction to the Drug Discovery Process Detailed explanation of the Drug Discovery Process Convergence with the New Product Development Literature Review Analysis of the related topic as described in Business Press and other Scientific journals. Research Objectives Research Methodology: An outline of the different approaches available for research Explanation of the different approaches and their outcomes with respect to the project Results and Discussions of the case Management Insights Relation of the Drug Discovery Process with Management concepts Conclusions and Future Research

Elizabeth I :: essays research papers fc

Elizabeth I King Henry VIII changed history in order to marry Anne Boleyn, hoping she could give him a son to be his heir. He already had a daughter, Mary, by his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, a princess of Spain, whom he divorced. The Pope would not allow the divorce, so Henry declared himself the Head of the Church of England, and disallowed any power the Pope might hold on English religion. On September 7, 1533 in Greenwich Palace, Anne had a daughter, who was named Elizabeth. A few years later, Henry accused Anne of incest, which historians agree was probably untrue - but Anne was beheaded in May 1536, and Elizabeth, not even three years old, was sent to live with relatives so she wouldn't remind Henry of Anne. Henry had remarried Jane Seymour, who gave birth to Henry's son, Edward, later to be Edward VI, but died soon afterwards. Catherine Parr, Henry's sixth and final wife, brought Elizabeth and Mary back to court. As the Dowager Queen, she moved away from court and left the ruling of the country to Edward VI, who was still a young boy. Edward Seymour (young Edward's uncle) became Lord Protector of England. Elizabeth went with Catherine, but left after an incident with Catherine's new husband, Thomas Seymour, and rumors of the time suggested that Catherine caught them kissing, or perhaps even in bed together. Catherine died soon after Elizabeth's departure. Young King Edward was always sickly, and came down with consumption, or tuberculosis. It seemed that he would die too young to have a child to be his heir, and it became a dangerous time for Princess Elizabeth. She was Henry's daughter, she was in Henry's will as an heir, she was in line for the throne and so was a target of many marriage proposals. Thomas Seymour asked Elizabeth to marry him, but she refused. However, both were suspected of plotting against Edward. Elizabeth was not questioned, but Seymour was arrested and eventually executed for treason after an attempt to kidnap the young king. Elizabeth, upon hearing of the Lord Admiral's death, was marked as saying "Today died a man of much wit, and very little judgment." Edward's declining health began a movement of Protestants who did not want Mary, a Catholic, to gain the throne. Lady Jane Grey, a descendant of Henry's sister Mary, was also considered a possible heir. When Edward died in 1553, Jane was proclaimed Queen by her father and father-in-law, but more people supported Mary.

Counseling Religious Clients

Different populations require different approaches in counseling. Counseling is a mean of attending to a person’s situation or condition using techniques, systems and approaches that differ among the groups of individuals. For instance, a raped teenager should be counsel in a different way as a homeless teenager. Conversely, African-American clients should be treated in a unique way as the Asian clients (cited in Miller, Leukefeld & Jefferson, 1994; Cook 1993). Nevertheless, just like the other populations, religious clients have unique characteristics and experiences that need a unique counseling approach.Likewise, religious clients have also unique needs for their mental health care. However, unlike the common people being counseled, religious people have sets of belief systems and values that, for a number of conditions, may interfere to the counseling program being implemented to them (Carpenter, 2003). In order to practice professionalism and ethics, counselors behave leg ally, morally and ethically. They are aware that they can only win the client’s trust and secure client’s protection by practicing high level of professional conduct (APA Ethics Code, 1992, 18).Principle D, Respect for People’s Right and Dignity, as stated in the Ethical principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct highlights: Psychologists are aware of cultural, individual, and role differences, including those due to age, gender, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, and socioeconomic status. Psychologists try to eliminate the effect on their work of biases based on those factors, and they do not knowingly participate in or condone unfair discriminatory practices (1992).Counselors take into consideration the client’s personal and cultural background before deciding on the assessment instrument that he will be using in the counseling process (APA Ethics Code, 1992, 11). One of the characteristic-factors that should be checked is religion. There are no religion restrictions in the counseling activity. Nonetheless, from among the mentioned factors or clients’ considerable backgrounds, religion—the foundation of people’s moral and faith—is the most controversial.The Code of Ethics of 2005 by the Governing Council of the American Counseling Association gives light to the five overlapping ethical principles that guide the counseling practices with religious clients. The principles that can be applied focus on the counseling relationship, freedom of choice, confidentiality and privacy in counseling process, professional responsibility, and evaluation, assessment and interpretation. Counseling Relationship In counseling, clients may have diverse cultural backgrounds.In order for the counselor to practice good counseling, he must need first to understand the cultural identity that each of his clients possesses. Section A. 2. c of the Code of ethics states that à ¢â‚¬Å"counselors communicate information in ways that are both developmentally and culturally appropriate. † Counselors must deal with clients in the most culturally appropriate way. The counselor’s approach to a religious client depends highly on the knowledge he or she has about the culture and religion of the client.People restrict their thinking on the concepts of races and ethnic groups when dealing with culture—yet this broad concept also includes the religious groups. As cited by Gardner, in the 1992 edition of Counselor Education and Supervision authored by Pate and Bondi, â€Å"the term culture includes religious beliefs and practices and that religion is understood to be intimately tied to ethnic identity† (1996). From this, in understanding the values of the religious clients, the counselor takes into consideration an approach that is culturally motivated.Freedom of Choice In the macro-perspective of culture, one reason for the disagreement, dif ference or dissonance between the counselor and the religious client, is the values and belief systems of the client which for the counselor, are inappropriate. There are set of beliefs that the religious clients have, that may intervene in the counseling process. â€Å"Clients have the freedom to choose whether to enter into or remain in a counseling relationship and need adequate information about the counseling process and the counselor† (Section A.2. a, 2005). Part of this principle is the right of the client to know the counselor’s values and beliefs, especially if these values may result to the restriction of the counselor’s range and ability to conduct the counseling process due to the conflicting views and beliefs between the religious client and the counselor. If this is so, clients should be given freedom to look and choose another counselor that has similar or directly related values with that of his (client). Confidentiality and Privacy in Counseling ProcessGetting the clients’ trust is one of the goals of the counselors. To achieve this, establishing and upholding boundaries, and maintaining confidentiality are given high considerations. Section B. 1. a states that â€Å"counselors maintain awareness and sensitivity regarding cultural meanings of confidentiality and privacy; counselors respect differing views toward disclosure of information† (2005). It is very crucial for the counselors to give respect and show sensitivity to the culture of the religious persons they counsel.Inquiry is important before the counselor acts on whether or not to disclose the information derived from counseling the religious client. Professional Responsibility â€Å"Counselors practice only within the boundaries of their competence, based on their education, training, supervised experience, state and national professional credentials, and appropriate professional experience† (Section C. 2. a, 2005). Understanding religious cli ent means having an adequate learning and understanding of their cultural beliefs, attitudes, and behavioral patterns.If the counselor can achieve this, then, it will be easier for him to understand the condition of his client. Moreover, for the success of the counseling process, the counselors should gain appropriate knowledge, awareness, sense of sensitivity, and skills relevant to the activity of working with the population of diverse backgrounds. Without good milieu and specialized training, the counselors who treat religious clients may neglect their condition and situation.With better understanding of the set of beliefs of the client, the counselor will be sensitive and intelligent enough to know what approach is to give the religious client. Evaluation, Assessment and Interpretation As summarized in Section E. 3. a of the Code, for the achievement of the goals, the counselors consider the client’s background in terms of his personal and/or cultural identity, his abilit y to understand the results based on his beliefs, and his possible reaction or the impact of the results to him.Moreover, â€Å"counselors recognize the effects of age, color, culture, disability, ethnic group, gender, race, spirituality, sexual orientation, and socio-economic status on test administration and interpretation, and place test results in proper perspective with other relevant factors† (Section E. 8, 2005). This is a process—first; the counselor needs to consider what counseling program is applicable to the client given sets of standards. Second, the counselor weighs all contributing factors to the possible outcome before considering results.Third, the results will be interpreted depending on the accuracy of the outcomes. Furthermore, Section A. 5. a says that â€Å"counselors avoid actions that seek to meet their personal needs at the expense of clients. † This concept, when applied to religious clients, means that the counselor must be aware of hi s or her personal opinion about the religious issues that may lead to certain reactions and overreactions—causing emotional harm to the client. Working with Religious Clients On his article, Gardner enumerated some ethical guidelines on how to work with religious clients.First, therapy in the context of evangelistic activities that promotes particular political and spiritual ideology and worldview must be avoided. Second, in the attempt to change some of the beliefs of the client that have direct effect on his or her disorder, the counselor must try to narrow down the approach and inform the client on the program he wants to implement. Third, a help from other professionals is better if dealing with the religious issue of the client is quite difficult to comprehend and accept.Fourth, counselors must try to include and integrate the religious beliefs of the client with the treatment she or he is undertaking. References American Counseling Association. (2005). ACA Code of Ethic s. Retrieved June 19, 2008, from http://www. counseling. org Carpenter, D. (2002). Ethical Considerations in Working with Religious Clients. Retrieved June 19, 2008, from Gestatalt-Global Corporation website: http://www. g-gej. org/1-2/religious_clients. html Gardner, J. N. (1996). Ethical Issues in Counseling Religious Clients. Retrieved June 19, 2008, from http://www. g-gej. org/1-2/religious_clients. html

King Pakal of Palenque

Kinich Jahahb Pakal (Resplendent Shield) was ruler of the Maya city of Palenque from 615 A.D. to his death in 683. He is usually known simply as Pakal or Pakal I to differentiate him from later rulers of that name. When he came to the throne of Palenque, it was an embattled, destroyed city, but during his long and steady reign it became the most powerful city-state in the western Maya lands. When he died, he was buried in a glorious tomb in the Temple of the Inscriptions in Palenque: his funeral mask and finely carved sarcophagus lid, priceless pieces of Maya art, are only two of the many wonders found in his crypt. Pakals Lineage Pakal, who ordered the construction of his own tomb, painstakingly detailed his royal lineage and deeds in finely carved glyphs in the Temple of the Inscriptions and elsewhere in Palenque. Pakal was born on March 23, 603; his mother Sak Kuk was of the Palenque royal family, and his father Kan Mo Hix came from a family of lesser nobility. Pakals great-grandmother, Yohl Iknal, ruled Palenque from 583-604. When Yohl Iknal died, her two sons, Ajen Yohl Mat and Janahb Pakal I, shared ruling duties until both died at different times in 612 A.D. Janahb Pakal was the father of Sak Kuk, mother of the future King Pakal. Pakals Chaotic Childhood Young Pakal grew up in difficult times. Before he was even born, Palenque was locked in a struggle with the powerful Kaan dynasty, which was based in Calakmul. In 599, Palenque was attacked by Kaan allies from Santa Elena and the Palenque rulers were forced to flee the city. In 611, the Kaan dynasty attacked Palenque again. This time, the city was destroyed and the leadership once again forced into exile. The Palenque rulers set themselves up at Tortuguero in 612 under the leadership of Ik Muuy Mawaan I, but a breakaway group, led by Pakals parents, returned to Palenque. Pakal himself was crowned by his mothers hand on July 26, 615 A.D. He was barely twelve years old. His parents served as regents to the young king and as trusted advisors until they passed away decades later (his mother in 640 and his father in 642). A Time of Violence Pakal was a steady ruler but his time as king was far from peaceful. The Kaan dynasty had not forgotten about Palenque, and the rival exile faction at Tortuguero made frequent war upon Pakals people as well. On June 1, 644, Bahlam Ajaw, ruler of the rival faction at Tortuguero, ordered an attack on the town of Ux Te Kuh. The town, birthplace of Pakals wife Ix Tzak-bu Ajaw, was allied with Palenque: the lords of Tortuguero would attack the same town a second time in 655. In 649, Tortuguero attacked Moyoop and Coyalcalco, also Palenque allies. In 659, Pakal took the initiative and ordered an invasion of the Kaan allies at Pomona and Santa Elena. The warriors of Palenque were victorious and returned home with the leaders of Pomona and Santa Elena as well as a dignitary of some sort from Piedras Negras, also an ally of Calakmul. The three foreign leaders were ceremoniously sacrificed to the god Kawill. This great victory gave Pakal and his people some breathing room, although his reign w ould never be completely peaceful. He of the Five Houses of the Terraced Building Pakal not only solidified and extended Palenques influence, he also expanded the city itself. Many great buildings were improved, built or begun during Pakals reign. Sometime around 650 A.D., Pakal ordered the expansion of the so-called Palace. He ordered aqueducts (some of which still work) as well as the expansion of buildings A,B,C and E of the palace complex. For this construction he was remembered with the title   He of the Five Houses of the Terraced Building Building E was built as a monument to his forebears and Building C features a hieroglyphic stairway which glorifies the campaign of 659 A.D. and the prisoners which were taken. The so-called Forgotten Temple was built to house the remains of Pakals parents. Pakal also ordered the construction of Temple 13, home of the tomb of the Red Queen, generally believed to be Ix Tzak-bu Ajaw, Pakals wife. Most importantly, Pakal ordered the construction of his own tomb: the Temple of the Inscriptions. Pakals Line In 626 A.D., Pakals soon-to-be wife Ix Tzak-bu Ajaw arrived at Palenque from the city of Ux Te Kuh. Pakal would have several children, including his heir and successor, Kinich Kan Bahlam. His line would rule Palenque for decades until the city was abandoned sometime after 799 A.D., which is the date of the last known inscription at the city. At least two of his descendants adopted the name Pakal as part of their royal titles, indicating the high regard the citizens of Palenque held him even long after his death. Pakals Tomb Pakal died on July 31, 683 and was entombed in the Temple of the Inscriptions. Fortunately, his tomb was never discovered by looters but was instead excavated by archaeologists under the direction of Dr. Alberto Ruz Lhuiller in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Pakals body was entombed deep in the temple, down some stairways which were later sealed off. His burial chamber features nine warrior figures painted on the walls, representing the nine levels of the afterlife. His crypt contains many glyphs describing his line and accomplishments. His great carved stone sarcophagus lid is one of the marvels of Mesoamerican art: it shows Pakal being reborn as the god Unen-Kawill. Inside the crypt were the crumbling remains of Pakals body and many treasures, including Pakals jade funeral mask, another priceless piece of Maya art.    Legacy of King Pakal In a sense, Pakal continued to govern Palenque long after his death. Pakals son Kinich Kan Bahlam ordered his fathers likeness carved into stone tablets as if he were leading certain ceremonies. Pakals grandson Kinich Ahkal Mo Nahb ordered an image of Pakal carved into a throne on Temple Twenty-one of Palenque. To the Maya of Palenque, Pakal was a great leader whose long realm was a time of expansion of tribute and influence, even if it was marked by frequent wars and battles with neighboring city-states. Pakals greatest legacy, however, is undoubtedly to historians. Pakals tomb was a treasure trove about the ancient Maya; archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma considers it one of the six most important archaeological finds of all time. The many glyphs and in the Temple of the Inscriptions are among the only surviving written records of the Maya. Sources: Bernal Romero, Guillermo. Kinich Jahahb Pakal (Resplandente Escudo Ave-Janahb) (603-683 d.C) Arqueologà ­a Mexicana XIX-110 (July-August 2011) 40-45. Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo. Grandes Hallazgos de la Arqueologà ­a: De la Muerte a la Inmortalidad. Mexico: Tiempo de Memoria Tus Quets, 2013. McKillop, Heather. New York: Norton, 2004.

The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) - Marketing Strategy - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 8 Words: 2294 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Marketing Essay Level High school Did you like this example? Select an organisation of your choice and produce a report which analyses their current marketing strategies and make recommendations for improvements to their marketing strategy. Date authored: 05 th September, 2014. This report will note upon the marketing strategy of The Fà ©dà ©ration Internationale de Football Association (FIFA; the association based in Zurich was founded in 1904 and is governed by Swiss law the official website states â€Å"It has 209 member associations and its goal, is the constant improvement of football,† (FIFA, 2014) but do people recognise FIFAs goal through their marketing effort? FIFA shows involvement to other associations whose aims are similar to their own, for instance Kick It Out who describe their organisation as footballs equality and inclusion, this is done through campaigns on anti-discrimination in football. They work with football, educational and community sections and aim to reduce racism, homophobia and other discriminations within the sport, FIFAs partnership ties to their aim to improve the sport within an ethical Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) Marketing Strategy" essay for you Create order spotlight. (Kick It Out, 2014) Recently the police and Crown Prosecution Service pledged to tackle ‘all forms of abuse in football, Morland Sanders went undercover to some football grounds and found â€Å"dispiriting findings [including] fans chanting deeply offensive racist abuse while nearby police officers do nothing.† (Whitelaw, P., 2014) FIFA may partner with such organisations to acquire the Halo Effect; Doyle (2011) defines this as â€Å"the perception of positive traits, qualities, or benefits of one entity influences (with positive bias) the perception – of another entity.† With this FIFA may seek positive equity from Kick It Outs perceptions. Recently FIFA received negative perceptions by publics due to their handling of the FIFA World Cup 2014, the host nation for the competition was Brazil whose economy was emerging from 2003, their share of global output increased by a percent point yearly until 2011. (Global Sherpa, 2014) In 2007 FIFA accepted Brazils bid to host the competition due to the strong economic climate they had, a year later a global recession would occur though Brazil, Russia, India, and China saw growth in economy, and these emerging economies have been dubbed the BRICs. The impact the BRICs would have upon global economy, was still questioned last year and whether that impact caused was permanent, Sharma, R (2013) believes the rise of the BRICs was rare stating â€Å"By 2007, with three – exceptions, every economy in the emerging world was growing, and more than 100 were growing faster than 5%. This kind of synchronised global boom had never happened before, and it is not likely to happen again.† And with â€Å"only 35 of 185 economies tracked – are developed; the rest have been ‘emerging forever. It is rare for emerging nations to sustain growth faster than 5% for even one decade.† Though Mahbubani, K (2013) argues that before 1820 China and India was the largest economies and believes â€Å"long term trajectory remains unchanged. Yes, there will be many short-term stumbles or strategic pauses.† FIFA could have improved their marketing effort in a number of ways; firstly they could have taken notice of the confusion within the economy at the time and taken a safer option by approving the bid of a developed nation. Secondly when the economy of Brazil steadied they could have offered more support towards Brazil, the number of partners FIFA boasts and their aim to progress football could they not provide Brazil with resources to help ease the job. Most importantly FIFA should have taken consideration of other stakeholders involved, with one stadium built with capacity of 42,000 used for four world cup fixtures, the local team who would use it after get average attendances of 1,000. ( Freeman, H. 2014) Social media marketing has received significant attention in the past few years. Critically discuss this technique. What makes a successful social media strategy? Within the past 10 years online communications have become increasingly vital for many companies, once marketers could control their communications, but with the rise of the internet consumers can easily make or break a brand, through social media. Singh Diamond (2012) defines social media as â€Å"content created and consumed by regular people for each other.† Marketers have shown growing interest upon this channel because they are popular; Facebook boasts near 1 billion users which is a large amount of traffic, this websites users are a part of a huge database which is ideal for the use of direct marketing. Databases are also available on YouTube, which is more popular than Cable TV, with people not using previously popular channels marketers must find another way to communicate with them. (Scott, 2013) This interest is now being acted upon by businesses so a company should use the tool their competitors do to ensure they do not face competitive disadvantage. Guerrilla marketing campaigns can use social media constructively, Levinson (1993) introduced this concept and believed such campaigns are characterised by low cost but extreme effect in building reputation by generating favourable consumer perceptions, such marketing is creative energetic, and flexible. Castronovo (2012) believes social media can aid guerrilla marketing as it is a free medium that can create a buzz and allows viral spread, this then â€Å"[increases] the relative exposure and effectiveness – compared to offline guerrilla venues alone.† Guerrilla marketing highlights how integrated marketing communications can be used effectively Clow Baack (2007, p.419) states marketers should â€Å"resist the temptation to create Web [content] that attempts to be everything to everyone.† In fact online communications need to reflect the offline; overall social media should be used for communicating elements of brand equity in a more social enigma relating to the target. ‘B2B branding and B2C branding are exactly the same Critically discuss this statement, do you agree? One brand that seeks business both B2B and B2C is Tesco, upon online communications they have to separate websites that targets the interest of both. Their main site (www.tesco.com) targets the consumers and supply links to the services sold to consumers, they also show their tagline â€Å"Every little helps† Though the branding remains similar upon the PLC site ( www.tescoplc.com) they have dropped the tagline and now they boast upon the companys achievements, current share price, and major shareholders. This differs from the product based approach upon the consumer site. In 2013, Tesco was involved with the horse-meat scandal, one of Tescos suppliers included horse meat within their products, and when this was found out consumers were outraged. Because of a fault in Tescos B2B business their brand was suddenly undesirable which produced negativity in their B2C branding. (BBC, 2014) If a B2B branding causes positive/negative perceptions to a business this could then show the same effect in B2C branding and vice-versa, for instance Innocent smoothies possess a large section of the smoothie market, Sainsburys acts as an ambassador for the brand and with Innocents ethical approach they may reap the halo effect, it may be more expensive than competitors but it still obtains high volumes of interest both B2B and B2C. Viral marketing is often cited as being a cheap and effective way of marketing a brand. What makes an effective viral marketing campaign? Perry Whitaker (2002) define viral marketing as â€Å"the voluntary spread of an electronic message from one consumer to one or many others, creating exponential and self-perpetuating growth in its exposure.† Though Kirby Marsden (2006) contradict the previous definition and believe viral marketing â€Å"describes any strategy that encourages individuals to pass on marketing offer to others,† the contradiction in the statements lies in whether the spread is voluntary or if it is implemented from a strategy. The spread of such marketing messages could be believed to be voluntary but can be adapted into a marketing strategy, Walter (2013) states â€Å"viral content cant be predicted – but brands and content producers can still learn from successful viral campaigns.† Looking at successful campaigns what can be implemented to another campaign to make it effective? To make a successful viral marketing campaign is to ensure consumer engagement with the brand, for instance 3s #DancePonyDance Campaign (Appendix 1) had users of Twitter ‘tweeting the amusing video, which many people shared it and thus the campaign became viral. Appendix 2 is the Doritos advertisement â€Å"Goat 4 Sale† Doritos ask people to create an advertisement for them and the winners advertisement is first aired during the Superbowl. The winner created the Goat 4 Sale ad, but with the amount of interested consumers, proves a lot of brand engagement. Appendix 3 was Doves campaign â€Å"Real Beauty Sketches† with majority of their target market being females they related to the market by having women draw pictures of themselves, that usually showed what they believed to be physical imperfections but when drawn by another person their beauty was accelerated, this campaign went viral because it understood a psychological belief of women and provided a positive insight, also the campaign was available in of languages so it could reach a larger audience. Finally Appendix 4 is a screenshot of the Walkers site during the â€Å"Do us a flavour† campaign, in which consumers provided walkers with flavours for their product, the most favourable by the company was then put to a public vote which decided which product they would provide more long-term. Evidence from successful viral marketing campaigns would provide the following recommendations to other campaigners who seek to become viral:  · Ask the consumer to engage with the brand on a different level whether this is as simple as social media engagement or more complex as creating a possible advertisement.  · Ensure the campaign does not stray from brand equity, using a fundamental of the campaigns brand will appeal to the correct audience for instance Dove is a beauty product, their campaign on beauty reflected this and thus spread.  · All target audience should understand the campaign, Dove ensured the video was available in an array of languages to target consumers worldwide. This attribute is also seen in 3s campaign which has the tagline ‘Silly stuff. It matters,† tying this with social media where consumers use the channel to socialise, humour may target them on this channel. Why is it important for an international marketer to study culture? Outline the main techniques available for undertaking cultural analysis? To understand the importance of the concept of culture for international marketers, primarily the concept must be defined. Culture is a set of control mechanisms that administrates peoples behaviour; culture is not a characteristic of the individual but rather bestows characteristics upon an audience. Culture perception from people ultimately corresponds from the socio-cultural environment which de Mooij (2010) believes â€Å"includes shared beliefs, attitudes, norms, roles, and values found among speakers of a particular language who live during the same historical period in a specific geographic region.† Overall one society may perceive one object in a different view than others, and understanding this will benefit a marketer. Kaynak, Herbig, (1998) states â€Å"Americans find it peculiar that the Chinese believe a dog is a delicacy, – while the Chinese find it peculiar that Americans – keep dogs as pets.† Therefore if a marketer who is used to a Chinese market should not market a dog as being a delicacy as it is far from the citizens perception of dogs. When conducting international marketing research Craig, Douglas, (2005) believes â€Å"secondary data [is] a key source of information – due to [its] ready availability, their low cost and their usefulness in providing background information relating to a specific country or industry.† Secondary sources are vast â€Å"ranging from print and CDROM to various Internet-based sources and web sites.† A PESTLE analysis is an effective yet simple tool used by marketers (Should the tool be expanded upon?) the circumstances of each area of the PESTLE may differ overseas which highlights the importance of analysing cultures when exploiting new geographical markets. If a PESTLE is used before exploiting new markets some issues may arise. Appendix Appendix 1 – 3 monkeys communications, (2014) Appendix 2 – Doritos, (2014) Appendix 3 – Dove, (2013) Appendix 4 – Bussey, (2009) References: 3 monkeys communications. (2014). Dance Pony Dance. Available: https://www.3-monkeys.co.uk/dance-pony-dance/. Last accessed 05/09/2014. BBC. (2014). Equine Cuisine. Available: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-21457188. Last accessed 05/09/2014. Bussey, N. (2009). Builders Breakfast wins Walkers Do us a flavour competition. Available: https://www.brandrepublic.com/news/903435/Builders-Breakfast-wins-Walkers-Do-us-flavour-competition/?DCMP=ILC-SEARCH. Last accessed 05/09/2014 Castronovo, C. (2012). Social Media in an Alternative Marketing Communication Model. Journal of Marketing Development and Competitiveness. 6 (1), 117 131. Clow, K.E. Baack, D. (2007). Integrated Advertising, Promotion, And Marketing Communications. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. 419 Craig, C.S. Douglas, S.P (2005). International Marketing Research. 3rd ed. Sussex: John Wiley Sons. de Mooij, M. (2010). Global Marketing and Advertising: Understanding Cultural Paradoxes. Californi a: SAGE publications. Doritos. (2014). Goat 4 Sale. Available: https://www.doritosgoat.com/. Last accessed 05/09/2014. Dove. (2013). Real Beauty Sketches. Available: https://realbeautysketches.dove.com/. Last accessed 05/09/2014 Doyle, C (2011). A Dictionary of Marketing. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. FIFA. (2014). The Organisation. Available: https://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/organisation/index.html. Last accessed 05/09/2014. Freeman, H. (2014). How Brazils World Cup has sold its people short in the Amazon. Available: https://www.theguardian.com/football/blog/2014/jun/17/brazil-world-cup-people-amazon-fifa-manaus. Last accessed 05/09/2014. Kaynak, E. Herbig, P (1998). Handbook of Cross-Cultural Marketing. New York: The Haworth Press. Kick It Out. (2014). About. Available: https://www.kickitout.org/about/. Last accessed 05/09/2014. Kirby, J. Marsden, P. (2006). Connected Marketing: The Viral, Buzz and Word of Mouth Revolution. Burlington: Elsevier. Levinson, J. (1993). Guerrilla Marketing: Secrets for Making Big Profits from Your Small Business, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Mahbubani, K (2013). The BRIC economies. Available: https://www.economist.com/debate/days/view/1001. Last accessed 05/09/2014. Perry, R. Whitaker, A. (2002). Viral Marketing In A Week. Essex: Hodder and Stoughton. Scott, M. (2013). 5 Surprising Social Media Statistics for 2013.Available: https://www.socialmediatoday.com/content/5-surprising-social-media-statistics-2013. Last accessed 05/09/2014 Sharma, R. (2013). The BRIC economies. Available: https://www.economist.com/debate/days/view/1001. Last accessed 05/09/2014. Singh, S., Diamond, S. (2012). Social Media Marketing for Dummies. New Jersey: Hoboken Whitelaw, P. (2014). Dispatches. Available: https://www.radiotimes.com/episode/cs9xvr/dispatchesundercover-hate-on-the-terraceschannel-4-dispatches. Last accessed 05/09/2014.

The Process of Verbal and Nonverbal Communication

Communication Paper Introduction Communication is important to virtually all spheres of human influence. Through communication, man is empowered to understand his immediate environment. If there was no communication, it would be impossible for man to gain knowledge that would inform his comprehension of his immediate environment. Communication comprises two major types; the verbal and non-verbal forms (Cole and Smith, 2008). For the purpose of our discussion, this paper will seek to present a discourse that encompasses the process of verbal and nonverbal communication, and the components that constitutes each. The appreciation of these forms of communication and their components is instrumental in the fashioning of an effective communicator in the field of criminal justice. The message is the most significant component of any form of communication. Normally communication is a continuous process that involves an interchange of messages from the sender to the recipient. Efficient communication is said to have occurred when the message passes from the sender to the receiver and that the message retains its originality and is not distorted. The sender always expects the receiver to respond to his message via the same channel of communication (Cole and Smith, 2008). The role of an effective communication system in criminal justice is indispensable as this allows the investigators in obtaining the best information during interviews with victims and perpetrators of crimes.Show MoreRelatedNonverbal Communication And The Classroom902 Words   |  4 PagesTOPIC 1: Nonverbal communication in the classroom Communication is the ongoing exchange of messages that enables us to share our knowledge, attitudes, opinions and skills with one another (Miller, 1988). This process is composed of two dimensions – verbal and nonverbal . 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Fraud Risk Factor Identification- Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp

Questions: 1.Explain how your results Influence your Planning decisions for the audit for the year ending 30 June 2015. 2.Explain why it is a risk and how it may affect the risk of Material Misstatement in the Financial Report. 3.Based on the background Information for DIPL contained in the case, Identify and Explain two key fraud risk factors relating to Misstatements arising from Fraudulent Financial reporting to which DIPL may be susceptible. Answers: 1.Analytical procedures Analytical procedures mean any procedures done by the auditor to make analysis regarding the financial statements of the organization. Analytical procedures are of two types one is preliminary analytical procedures and other is substantive analytical procedures. Preliminary analytical procedures are performed for planning nature, time and extant of substantive procedures required in the performance of the audit. On the other hand, substantive procedures are extensive procedures which include ratio analysis, trend analysis and comparative analysis of financial statements. Results of substantive procedures help the auditor in planning audit (Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, 2009). In the present case company under consideration, Double ink printers limited is a company works in printing industry providing serives of printing on demand as well as e-books with publishers titles, to its clients. The background information of Double ink printers limited indicate various factors which required to take into consideration by the auditor during the planning of audit. Some activities which required special consideration are, Recording of inventory value as well as accounts payble by the same person Indicating factor for impairment of assets purchased from Nuclear Publishing limited in last year Entrance in new loan with two specific conditions Change of chief executive officer and establishment of new internal audit depatment Change of external auditor Implementation of new IT system with insufficient staff No allowance for inventory obsolescence Allowance for inventory obsolescence made in previous years, written back Change in method of inventory valuation from average cost inventory valuation to first in first out based inventory valuation Change in estimated regarding the depreciable life of printing press by incereasing depreciable life, due to this depreciation expenses per year will decline E-book revenue recognization without completion of revenue genration process Results from ratio analysis and comperative analysis Trend analysis of balalnce sheet of Double ink printers limited 2013 2014 2015 Total Current Assets 41.65% 47.22% 36.72% Total Non-Current Assets 58.35% 52.78% 63.28% Total Assets 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% Total Current Liabilities 29.23% 32.19% 24.47% Total Non-current Liabilities 28.68% Total Liabilities 29.23% 32.19% 53.15% Net Assets 70.77% 67.81% 46.85% Total Equity 70.77% 67.81% 46.85% Trend analysis of income statement of Double ink printers limited 2013 2014 2015 Revenue 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% Cost of Sales 82.45% 83.87% 84.80% Gross Profit 17.55% 16.13% 15.20% Profit before tax 9.85% 8.68% 7.04% Profit after tax 6.90% 6.08% 6.84% Ratio relevent for loan conditions 2015 Current ratio 1.50 Debt equity ratio 1.13 Information which collected during the analytical procedures will affect the audit. All above mentioned financial and non financial factors auditor will effect planning for audit. Auditor will plan extensive procedures for reaching an appropriate opinion regarding these assertions (Putra, 2010). 2.Risk assessment and inherent risk identification Risk assessment procedures are procedures which followed by the auditor to measure risks related to financial information (Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, 2011). Audit risks are mainly of three types. Inherent risk arises because of nature of the transaction, control risk arises due to non availability of appropriate control and detection risk arises because of non detection of material misstatement due to lack of procedures followed by the auditor (Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, 2009). In the present case, inherent risk factors are, Change in method of inventory valuation from average cost inventory valuation to first in first out based inventory valuation Change in estimated regarding the depreciable life of printing press by incereasing depreciable life, due to this depreciation expenses per year will decline These changes are considered as an inherent risk factor because application of both changes will result in higher net income and in turn better financial position. Suggested change in method of inventory valuation will increase the value of closing stock and in turn, will increase net income. Suggested change in the life of the non-current asset will decline depreciation expenses and in turn, will increase net income. Due to nature of these two changes, these assertions involves inherent risk and this can be reduced up to an acceptable level by making appropriate audit procedures. 3.Fraud risk factor identification Fraud risk is the risk that financial reports of the organization are manipulated by a fraudster in such a way so that it becomes material for the users of financial reports. Fraud risk factors are the factors present in the reports of financial data which increase the suspicion of fraud (Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, 2013). Fraud can be initiated by any level of management of the organization. Fraud is performed by fraudster either because of pressure or because of misutilization of extensive rights provided to a person or group of persons. Fraud risk factors and effects of identification of these factors are, Non-allowance for inventory obsolescence, writing back the allowance for inventory obsolescence made in previous years and change in inventory valuation method indicates that there may be fraud risk factor due to pressure. The company needs to make current ratio at least 1.5 for the fulfillment of one condition out of two conditions of a loan from BDO finance. Current ratio can be increased by increasing current assets. Inventory is a current asset and non-creation of inventory allowances, wrtiing back the allowance for inventory obsolescence and change in inventory valuation method will enhance net inventory value. Due to the identification of this factor auditor will increase the extant of procedures for assessment of need of allowance for inventory obsolescence and inventory value. Recording of inventory value, as well as accounts payble by the same person, indicates that there may be fraud risk factor due to misutilization of extensive rights to accounts payable clerk. This employee may make a change in both values i.e. inventory and accounts payable for taking unjustified advantages. Due to the identification of this factor auditor will increase the extant of procedures for assessment of accounts receivable value, for this auditor may send confirmation requests to all accounts payables for confirming their due balance References Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, 2009. ASA 520 Analytical Procedures. [Online] Available at: https://www.auasb.gov.au/admin/file/content102/c3/ASA_520_28-04-06.pdf [Accessed August 20 2017]. Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, 2009. Auditing Standard ASA 200 Overall Objectives of the Independent Auditor and the Conduct of an Audit in Accordance with Australian Auditing Standards. [Online] Available at: https://www.auasb.gov.au/admin/file/content102/c3/ASA_200_27-10-09.pdf [Accessed 20 august 2017]. Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, 2011. Auditing Standard ASA 315 Identifying and Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement through Understanding the Entity and Its Environment. [Online] Available at: file:///F:/GS%20Solution%20(60%20paise)/Aug/16/risk%20assement%20procedure.pdf [Accessed 20 august 2017]. Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, 2013. Auditing Standard ASA 240 The Auditor's Responsibilities Relating to Fraud in an Audit of a Financial Report. [Online] Available at: https://www.auasb.gov.au/admin/file/content102/c3/Nov13_Compiled_Auditing_Standard_ASA_240.pdf [Accessed 2017 August 20]. Putra, L.D., 2010. https://accounting-financial-tax.com. [Online] Available at: https://accounting-financial-tax.com/2010/04/the-use-of-analytical-procedures-in-auditing/ [Accessed 20 August 2017].